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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Chap JjjTopyright Noli. 1 .J 
8helt T |y|_3 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



NEW YORK TRAINING SCHOOL FOR DEACONESSES 



OLD TESTAMENT 
LITERATURE 






NEW YORK 
1900 



TWO copies receivhd* 



Library of CcL^c>f% 
Office oft- 

B«gi*tM af «lpyrfg(.f s. 



^2 



/Is 



60074 



Copyright, 1900 

BY 

HASLETT McKIM 



Ube IRnicfcerbocfeer pvzm, "Wew UJorfc 

SECOND COPY. 






ABBREVIATIONS. 



ASS = Song of Solomon. By W. F. Adeney (Expositor's Bible). 

1875. 

BB = Book by Book. London, 1892. 

BD = Smith 's Bible Dictionary '. Amer. Ed., 1868-70. In part, second 
edition, London, 1893. 

BE = Book of Ecclesiastes. By Samuel Cox (Expositor's Bible). 
Second edition, 1898. 

BT = Book of the Twelve Prophets. By G. A. Smith (Expositor's 
Bible). 1896-98. 

BW = Biblical World. Chicago, 1893- 

C = Coheleth (Book of Ecclesiastes). By C. D. Ginsburg. London, 
1861. 

CB = Cambridge Bible for Schools. 

CC = Cambridge Companion to the Bible, 1893. (For large-type 
edition, [ ]). 

COT = Canon of the Old Testament. By H. E. Ryle. London, 1892. 

DB =.- Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by James Hastings. 1898- 

DL = Divine Library of the Old Testament. By A. F. Kirkpatrick. 
London, 1891. 

DP = Doctrine of the Prophets. By same. London, 1892. 

E = Expositor. London, 1875- 

ET = Expository Times. Edinburgh, 1890- 

GSS = Song of Songs. By C. D. Ginsburg. London, 1857. 

HI = History of Interpretation. By F. W. Farrar (Bampt. Lectures). 
1886. 

IB = How God Inspired the Bible. By J. Paterson Smyth. 1892. 
Third edition (1898) quoted in [ ]. 

LE = Lectures on Ecclesiastes. By G. G. Bradley. 1885. Second 
edition (1898) in [ ]. 

LI = Inspiration. By W. Sanday (Bampt. Lectures). 1893. 



2 Abbreviations. 

LOT = Introductio?i to Literature of the Old Testament. By S. R. 
Driver. Second edition. 1891. 

MP = Minor Prophets. By F. W. Farrar. New York. [n. d.] 

OD = Old Documents and the New Bible. By J. Paterson Smyth. 
New York. [n. d.] 

OTJC = Old Testament in the Jewish Church. By W. Robertson 
Smith. Second edition. London, 1892. 

PI = Prophets of Israel. By late W. Robertson Smith. New edition. 
London, 1895. 

TC = Teaching of Christ. By Bishop Moorhouse. London, 1891. 



OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE. 

TEXT. 

I. Textual Criticism, (i) At first sight might appear 
that field for such criticism very limited as to Old Testament. 
Why? (2) How far back do existing Old Testament MSS. 
go ? (3) Popular explanation of uniformity ; to what extent 
correct ? (4) What means of knowing whether MSS. earlier 
than those surviving exhibited variations from these latter ? 
(5) What is a Vcrsio?i ? (6) Name principal ancient versions. 
(7) Some ways in which errors might easily find admission into 
Hebrew text (OD 12, 16 f., 20-22). (8) Salient points of bitter 
controversy regarding vowel-points (OD 13 fi\). (9) Some 
examples of principles on which textual criticism rests. 

(i) Text in Hebrew MSS. almost same in all (OD 3). 
(2) Not as much as a thousand years. (3) That shows 
marvellously perfect care of Scriptures. Doubtless true 
for many centuries ; but not to be predicated of earlier cen- 
turies (OD 32). (4) Ancient versions, which were made 
from earlier MSS. than those now existing. (5) A trans- 
lation. (6) Targums, Septuagi?it, Vulgate, Peshitto. 
(7) (a) Hebrew anciently written without vowels ; hence 
wrong vowels might be inserted later (cf. Gen. xlvii. 31, 
and Heb. xi. 21). (b) Not improbably words often ran 
into one another, {c) Several letters resembled each 
other, (d) Mistakes through similarity of sound, in 



4 History of Text 

case of dictation, (e) Right word taken from wrong 
place. (/) Marginal words finding way into text. (8) 
Great antiquity ascribed to marks by Jews. Why Prot- 
estants and Romanists agreed. What established by 
Levita? (9) (a) MSS. not always of equal value; (b) 
where they are, majority decides best reading ; (V) where 
not, earlier MSS. probably more correct (OD 25 f.). 

2. History of Text. (1) Four Periods into which history 
of Old Testament text roughly divided ? (2) Character used in 
First Period ? (3) Two important facts of Second Period ? 
(4) Probable state of text in this Period ? (5) What evidence 
as to text in Third Period? (6) Explain (a) k'thibh and 
q'ri, (b) usage regarding ineffable name Jhvh. (7) (a) What 
great work completed in this Period ? (b) For what are we 
indebted to makers of Talmud f (c) Illustrate extreme rever- 
ence for text. (8) In history of text two important events fall 
in Fourth Period ; what are they (OD 88-92) ? (9) Two 
famous schools of this time (OD 76-79) ? 

(i) (a) Before Ezra, (b) From Ezra to Fall of Jeru- 
salem, B.C. 450-A.D. 70. (c) Talmud Period, a.d. 70- 
500. {d) Massoretic Period, a.d. 500-1000 (DL 58 
if.). (2) Old Hebrew as distinguished from so-called 
" Square " (Assyrian) writing (OD 2 ff.), DL 58 f. (3) 
(a) Fixing of O. T. Canon, (b) adoption of Square char- 
acter (OD 66 f., DL 60 f.). (4) Verbal uniformity 
probably did not exist. To this conclusion point Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch and LXX. (DL 61 f.). (5) That stand- 
ard text (substantially that of present) gradually grew 
up. By time of Talmud absolutely fixed (DL 63 f.). 
(6) (a) Mean "written" and "read." Former used 
of wrong word in text ; latter of right word in margin. 
{b) Vowels of Adonai {Lord) substituted for real vowels 
(now unknown) of Jhvh. DL 65 f. (7) (a) Talmud. 1 

1 For Talmud, see OD 79-82 ; 126-143. 



History of Text. 5 

(b) Care of text, (c) Pen washed before writing names 
of God. Even evident mistakes corrected only in mar- 
gin. (8) {a) Reduction to writing of exegetical tradition 
[Massora) current in previous period, (b) Increased 
efficiency of Massora. DL 72, OD 90-104. (9) Tiberias 
and Babylon. DL, 70 f. 

3. Massoretic Text. (1) Which the text that has come 
down to us ? By what name known ? (2) Three lines of 
reasoning showing that not free from error (DI, 76) ? 

(i) Palestine, to distinguish from that used by Jews 
of Dispersion (cf. OD 85 f.), Massoretic. (2) (a) Evi- 
dence furnished by itself, e.g., not admitting of transla- 
tion without violence to grammar ; (b) parallel passages ; 

(c) ancient versions. DL 73-84. 

4. Samaritan Pentateuch. (1) Wherein lies its chief 
value in textual criticism ? (2) What diminishes weight of 
variations from received text ? 

(1) From circumstance that probably derived from 
Jewish text not later than B.C. 430 (OD 49 f. ). (2) Be- 
cause own text has been frequently tampered with (OD 
51). Cf. OD 118-125. 

5. Targums. (1) What? (2) How originated ? 

(i) Aramaic paraphrases of Scripture that was read in 
Synagogue ; at first oral, then written. (2) Because 
knowledge of Hebrew confined to learned (OD 144 f.). 

6. Septuagint. (1) When translation begun ? (2) What 
confers special interest? (3) Romance of Aristeas (OD 149- 
151) ? (4) Probable place of origin? (5) How does it appear 
that not by Jewish scholars ? (6) What takes from worth for 
critical purposes ? 

(1) B.C. 280. (2) Was Bible used by our Eord and 
His apostles. (3) Ptolemy wishes Pentateuch translated 



6 Inspiration. 

for his library ; thousands of captives set free ; procession 
to Jerusalem ; six Jews from each of twelve tribes come 
to Egypt ; gold letters ; 72 days' work ; 72 cells of early 
Christian version of story ; exact uniformity of trans- 
lation. (4) Alexandria. For needs of Jews of Disper- 
ston. (5) Imperfect knowledge of Hebrew ; mistakes in 
geography ; Kg3'ptian words ; Macedonian Greek (OD 
152 f.). (6) Translation not accurate ; own text corrupt. 

7. Other Greek Versions. (1) Name three in or before 
a.d. 200 (OD 83). (2) Story of Aquila? s version (OD 157- 

159)? 

(i) Of Aquila,Symmachus, Theodotio7i. (2) He gives 
up heathenism for Christianity ; then Christianity for 
Judaism ; L,XX disliked by Jews. 

8. Vulgate. (1) How did Vulgate come to be written (OD 
169 £,)? (2) Immense influence on history of Bible (171)? 
(3) How received at first and for long time ? (4) Illustrate 
change of opinion by time of Council of Trent (173). 

(i) So many errors in old Latin Bibles. At first Jerome 
attempted revision, but ended with translation from He- 
brew. (2) For more than thousand years parent of every 
version in Western Europe. (3) With unbounded abuse. 
(4) Then made standard Bible. 

See, Visit to Codex B, BW xii. 5 ff., Siloam inscription, 458. 

INSPIRATION. 

I. A General Indication. (1) With all the variety in Old 
Testament books what feature attests supernatural origin (DL 
85 f.) ? (2) Confirmatory evidence in ourselves (DL no f.) ? 

(i) Undesigned unity of life and spirit. Cf. DL 109 f., 
IB 33 f. [37], 36 [41]. (2) Message of Bible finds sou 
of man. IB 22 [26], cf. 37 f. [42]. 



Inspiration. 7 

2. Nature of Inspiration, (i) An important distinction? 
(DL 87). (2) How nature of inspiration to be investigated ? 
(3) Providential analogy suggesting itself? (4) Analogy be- 
tween Incarnate Word and Written Word (DL 91) ? 

(i) Between fact of Inspiration and its iiature. TC 
1 ff. (2) In Scriptures themselves. IB 63 [68]-68 [73]. 
(3) Between our changing views respecting Nature and 
Revelation. (4) Just as sometimes Christ's Humanity 
and His Divinity have been so presented as to destroy 
the one or the other, so with the Human and Divine in 
Scripture. IB 126 f. [132]. 

3. Evil of Theories. (1) From what assumption should we 
be free in studying question of Inspiration (DL 89) ? (2) How 
have expressions " Scripture is word of God," and " Scripture 
contains word of God," each been perverted (DL 91) ? 

(1) That God in revealing Himself must have followed 
plan commonlv supposed by Christian world. IB 45 

[49.1-57 [ 62 1- Cf - BW "■ 82 ff - ( 2 ) Former into 
Verbal Inspiration ; latter, to destruction of all differ- 
ence between inspiration of Scripture and that of notable 
men in every age. IB 101 [io7]-io3 [no], cf. 107 [113 - 
112 [118]. On Human Element ^ see 113 [ii9]-i25 [132] ; 
COT 12 f. 

4. Degrees of Inspiration. (1) Difference between other 
literature and Bible (DL 92) ? (2) How may case stand as re- 
gards most of Apocrypha f (3) What perfectly consistent with 
recognition of Inspiration ? 

(1) Former lacks unity of spirit and purpose. (2) Dis- 
tinction between them and canonical writings less sharp 
than commonly thought. (3) Different degrees of Inspi- 
ration. 

5. Chief Clue in Question of Inspiration. (1) As to In- 
spiration, fact to be noted ? (2) Best method of studying 



8 Classification and Arrangement. 

question? (3) What the Christian view of purpose of Old 
Testament (DE 93-95) ? (4) What do we see in pursuing this 
plan of study ? (5) Result of failure to see it (DE 107 f.) ? 

(1) No clear-cut theory possible (DE 90). IB 95 [101]- 
97 C io 3]- ( 2 ) To find what inspiration is, we should 
bear in mind what it was/or. (IB 137 [144J-139 [147]). 
(3) To be record of God's gradual revelation of Himself 
in preparation for the Gospel. (4) Not that the Divine 
method of working was such as we might have supposed 
beforehand, but that a gradual Divine education of Israel 
shows itself (DE 97-103. IB 26 [30] ff.). (5) Neglect 
to perceive that Bible a record of progressive revelation 
is responsible for many difficulties. On Progressiveness 
of G00V s Teaching, see IB Chap. V. 

6. What Inspiration is not. Some negative character- 
istics of Inspiration (DL 103-106)? 

Does not (a) dispense with literary methods, (b) secure 
freedom from error, nor (c) independence of environment. 
See Theories of Inspiration, BW v. 169 ff. 

CLASSIFICATION AND ARRANGEMENT. 

1. Number. (1) How many books in our Old Testament? 
(2) In Hebrew ? (3) Reconcile discrepancy. 

(i) 39, (2) 24, (3) Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Minor 
Prophets, in each case one book ; Ezra and Nehemiah 
together one. Hence, 39 — 15 = 24. (CC 3 a [6]). 

2. Groups, (i) Three groups of books in Hebrew Bible ? 
(2) To what, triple division probably due [6] ? (3) Four-fold 
division to which books in our Bible easily lend themselves ? 

(4) Three historical periods into which second division falls ? 

(5) Proverbs and Ecclesiastes not Poetical ; what then [5] ? 



Classification and Arrangement. 9 

(i) Law, Prophets, Hagiographa (CC 2 b [5] ). (2) 
Gradual formation of Canon. (3) Pentateuch , Historical 
Books, Poetical, Prophetical (CC 2 a, b [4] ). (4) («) 
Joshua, Judges, Ruth, before Monarchy ; (b) Samuel, 
Kings, Chronicles, during Monarchy ; (c) Ezra, Nehe- 
miah, Ruth (episode), after Captivity. (5) Belong to 
" Wisdom " literature. 

3. Prophets, (i) Hebrew subdivision of Prophets? (2) 
Another? (3) Why Daniel not to be classed strictly with 
Prophetical writings ? (4) How does Jonah differ from them ? 
(5) Two facts that would naturally have enhanced popular 
esteem for Prophetical writings (CC 5 b [13] ) ? (6) Prophetical 
division probably not completed until when (CC 6 a [14] ) ? 

(i) Former and Latter. Refers to position, not date. 
(2) Four Major, two Minor. (3) Apocalyptical rather 
than prophetic. (4) By almost exclusively narrative 
form. (5) Fulfilment relative to Captivity. Cessation 
of Prophecy would also increase value of what left in 
writing. (6) Some time after Nehemiah. 

4. Hagiographa. (1) What suggested as leading to de- 
termination of canonicity of Hagiographa ? (2) Usage of 
Synagogue as to Hagiographa ? (3) Name some books of 
Hagiographa that would seem rather to belong elsewhere. 

(i) Destruction of sacred books under Antiochus Epi- 
phanes. (2) Never all read in Synagogue. Only in 
post-Talmudic days that Five Megilloth used in Syna- 
gogue (CC 7 b [18]). (3) Da?iiel, Ezra, Nehemiah, 
Chronicles would seem Prophetical or Historical (CC 2 b 

[5])- 

5. Order. (1) As to order of books, what noticeable in 
LXX ? (2) What not unlikely the reason ? (3) Last book of 
Hebrew Old Testament ? 






io Canon. 

(i) Great variety in different manuscripts (CC 3 a 
[6] ). Cf. COT 213 ff. (2) Gradual formation of Canon 
rather than Alexandrian independence. (3) Chronicles 
(CC 3 b [6] ). 

CANON. 

I. In investigating formation of Canon, what important fact 
meets us at outset ? 2. First certain intimation of Canonical 
Scripture in Israel ? 3. Early Jewish tradition regarding 
formation of Canon (CC 4 a [10])? 4. A later phase (4 b 
[10] ) ? 5. Character of evidence for both ? 6. Substratum of 
fact ? 7. Purpose in collecting writings into Canon ? 8. Earlier 
stage preceding formation of Canon? 9. What might well 
tend to delay such formation? 10. Three stages of prepara- 
tion? II. Classification of earliest collections of writings for 
national instruction? 12. How Canon probably formed [11]? 
13. What would then be successive stages ? 14. At what date 
Hebrew Canon officially decreed (CC 7 a [17] ) ? 15. Show by 
certain discussions of Jewish doctors freedom allowed in criti- 
cism of canonicity. 

I. That no historical account exists. COT 3. 2. In 
time of Josiah. COT 18 cf. 47, 57. 3. Attributes to 
miraculous agency of Ezra (cf. 2 Esdras, Ch. 14). COT 
239 ff. 4. Ezra and Men of Great Synagogue (OD 63 f. ). 
COT 250 ff. 5. Of no value. 6. Final assertion of 
authority of Law brought about by Ezra and com- 
panions. 7. Religious, not merely literary. COT 6 f. 
8. When writings belonged to ordinary literature of 
people. COT 15 f. 9. Existence of other means of 
knowing will of God. Ibid. 10. (a) Of the books in 
earliest form, (b) in present form through editing, (c) of 
receiving them into Canon. COT 17. II. [a) Songs, 
(b) laws, (c) histories, (d) prophecies. COT 18 ff. 12. 
Gradual growth of several centuries. 13. (a) Law, (b) 



Apocrypha. 1 1 

Law and Prophets, (c) Law, Prophets, and Writings. Cf. 
COT, chaps, iv-viii. 14. Council of Jamnia (Circ. a.d. 
100). 15. About Ezekiel, Ecclesiastes, and others. 

APOCRYPHA. 

I. How did early Christian writers come to hold Apocrypha 
in high esteem (CC 8 a [18])? 2. Augustine's testimony? 
3. What decreed respecting Apocrypha by Council of Trent 
[20]? 4. Two distinct senses in which word "Apocrypha'' 
used ? 5. On what ground Apocrypha retained in English 
Church ? 6. In Jewish literature what do these books rep- 
resent (CC 8 b [21])? 7. Three Apocryphal writings sup- 
posed to be referred to in New Testament (CC 8 b, 9 a 
[21, 22])? 

I. All books of IyXX and early Latin versions popu- 
larly accounted of equal authority. Cf. COT 208 f. 2. 
"Church, but not Jews, held Apocrypha canonical." 
3. All books in Vulgate of equal inspiration. 4. (a) 
Pseudepi graphic writings of heretics, (b) Books not 
used in Church services. 5. "Useful for example of 
life and instruction of manners. ' ' 6. Chief remains of 
centuries just before and after Christ. 7. (a) Book of 
Enoch ( Jude 14), (b) Assumption of Moses (Jude 9), (c) 
Book of legendary adventures of Moses (2 Tim. iii. 8). 

See Jewish Apocalypses BW vi. 97 ff. ; Apocrypha, viii. 272 fF. ; Book 
of Enoch, xii. 37 fF. 

PENTATEUCH. 

I. Name, (i) Name given by Jews to Pentateuch, and 
meaning ? (2) Earlier and later sense? 

(i) Torah {teaching, law). BB 1. (2) (a) Individual 
decision on moral or ceremonial question, (b) did not till 
after Exile imply written Law. COT 32 f. 






1 2 Pentateuch. 

2. Purpose. Design traceable through all Pentateuch ? 

To exhibit development of people chosen by God to 
perform great work in world (BB 3). 

3. Unity. Its character ? 

Of idea, more than form. Strict chronology lacking ; 
different accounts of same event side by side ; repetitions 
(BB 4). 

4. History. (1) At what point does it begin ? (2) Process 
of limitation ? (3) Broad difference between modern historical 
writing and Pentateuch ? (4) Difference in matter of notes ? 

(i) Creation (BB 3). (2) Out of family of Noah, 
Shem's descendants selected ; from them, family of 
Abraham. Then Isaac, facob, Ephraiyn, and fudah (BB 
3). (3) In former, historian uses own words ; in latter, 
of original authorities (BB 4), (4) What would be in 
modern foot-note is put in text of Pentateuch (BB 4). 

5. Laws. (1) Two elements of Pentateuch ? (2) Purpose 
for which Law given ? (3) What underlies laws ? (4) Increas- 
ing explicitness in Cove?ia?its ? (5) Pentateuch legislation has 
what two-fold reference in time? (6) Three different Codes, 
supposed by many to be contained in Pentateuch ? (7) On< 
what ground wide difference in time inferred regarding these 
codes ? (8) An earlier than Jewish origin for merely ceremonial 
system ? 

(i) Narrative and legislation ; former the main purpose 
of books ; though latter a prominent feature (BB 2). 
(2) Education of people to fulfil high end (BB 3). (3) 
God's Covenants (BB 3). (4) With Noah, less explicit 
than with Abraham; that again, than Covenant at 
Sinai (BB 4). (5) Back, to choosing of people ; forward, 
to realization of meaning of choice (BB 3). (6) Book of 
Covenant (Exod. xx. 23-xxiii.), Deuteronomic Code 
(introduced in reign of fosiah), Levitical Code (great 



Pentateuch. 13 

part of Exodus, and all of Leviticus) . This last many 
consider to have been introduced after Exile (BB 12). 
COT 24 ff., cf. 71 ff. (7) That there are differences in 
their provisions, suggesting changes in course of time, 
and advance from simple to more elaborate ritual. L,OT 
80. (8) In general features, system like that of other 
Semitic races. COT 27 f., PI 55 f., cf. BB 36 f. 

6. Authorship. (1) Very likely, not until when was 
authorship of sacred books assigned ? (2) Fact particularly to 
be noted in respect to authorship of Pentateuch ? (3) As re- 
gards Mosaic authorship, what is all that is stated in Penta- 
teuch itself? (4) Respecting share of Moses in composition, of 
what are we left in ignorance? (5) Foundation of Jewish tradi- 
tion that Moses the author? (6) What then may reasonably 
be expected as to traditional view ? 

(i) At or after collection into Canon (BB 5). (2) 
Mosaic origin not asserted by Pentateuch itself (BB 5). 
(3) That Moses wrote certaiyi specific things (BB 6). (4) 
How much it was (BB 7), COT 31. (5) General belief 
as to historical position of Moses, not on examination of 
writings, time not being ripe for that (BB 7). (6) That 
it should have to be modified (BB 7). 

7. Composite Nature. (1) Early stages of theory of com- 
posite character of Pentateuch ? (2) When epoch-making line 
of investigation started ? (3) Conclusion reached by Astruc? 
(4) Later stage of investigation ? (5) Further considerations 
leading to idea of composite character? (6) Name principal 
documents supposed to form basis of Pentateuch. (7) With 
what view supposition of late date for canonical recognition of 
our present Pentateuch perfectly consistent ? 

(i) First, Jews attributed concluding verses of Deuter- 
onomy to another than Moses. Subsequently, things 



14 Genesis. 

not easily coming from his hand were accounted later 
additions (BB 9). (2) Middle of eighteenth century. 
(3) That different names for God indicate different docu- 
ments ; that with two larger and some smaller docu- 
ments Moses made Genesis and first part of Exodus (BB 
10). (4) Peculiarity as to names of God found in other 
books as well as Genesis. When separated according to 
different names, each portion has own additional pecul- 
iarities. Deuteronomy different in important respects 
from documents used in preceding books. Traces of 
same documents in Joshua also (BB 10). (5) (a) Repeti- 
tions, (b) discrepancies and inconsiste?icies, (c) lack of 
orderly arrangement. DL, 44; DB ii., 363 f. (6) (a) 
"Priestly" (symbol P.). So called from circumstance 
that priestly laws in Leviticus considered to belong to 
same source, (b) " Jehovistic," designated by J. (c) A 
second writer using, as does P., name Elohim, but very 
closely related to J. In consequence of this resemblance 
— owing, as supposed, to combination by compiler — two 
are frequently referred to as one whole, and styled JE. 
(d ) Deuterono?nic writing. Few traces elsewhere than in 
Deutero7iomy and foshua. Symbol D. Way in which 
present form of Pentateuch thought to have been reached 
substantially this : By various Editors {Redactors), first 
J+E ; then JE + D ; lastly JED -f P. DB ii. 375 ; COT 
35. (7) That nucleus to be referred to Moses. CC 5 a, 
[12] ; DI, 41-50. 

8. Method of Modern Criticism. Two lines modern 

criticism follows? 

Literary, from evidence of Pentateuch itself, as to 
style, etc. of different parts ; Historical, from evidence of 
historical books of Old Testament (BB 10 f.) ; DL 7 f. 

On Place of Moses in O. T. Hist., see BW v. 161 ff. ; His Age and 
Work, vii. 31 ff., 105 ff. 

GENESIS. 

I. (a) By whom title "Genesis," "Exodus," etc. given? 
(b) Inadequacy of name Genesis f 2. (a) Main subject? (b) 



Exodus. 15 

subject of first ten chapters ? (c) at what point does Genesis close ? 

3. Noteworthy literary feature ? 4. (a) Instances of Duplicate 

accounts ? {b) of later writer than Moses f 5. Marked difference 

between early Hebrew traditions and those of other ancient 

nations ? 6. Mistake to which dread of Science due that many 

have? 7. What brought out by comparison of Babylonian and 

Assyrian traditions regarding Creation, Deluge, etc. with 

Biblical accounts ? 

I. (a) Hellenists and Church Fathers (BB 17). (b) 
Chief purpose of book not to describe origin of world. 

2. (a) History of family of Abraham, (b) Creation and early 
history of race, (c) removal of chosen family to Egypt. 

3. Series of Genealogies, of Adam, Noah, etc. (BB 18). 

4. (a) Of Creation and Flood (LOT 6 fT.) {b) References 
to Canaa?iite in land {Gen. xii. 6) and kings over Israel 
(xxxvi. 31) ; name of Dan {Gen. xiv. 14 ; cf.fudg. xviii. 
29) ; reference to Moses as in past {Deut. xxxiv. 10), and 
to his personal character {Numb. xii. 3). 5. High re- 
ligious tone of former. Natural objects not deified, even in 
poetry ; and men of sacred writers not endowed with 

fabulous qualities, as heathen heroes (BB 19, 23). 6. Of 

not seeing that purpose not so much to tell about nature 

as about God of nature (BB 20 f. ). "In Bible have 

revelation, not science ; in Nature, science not religion." 

7 {a) Resemblances indicating common source, {b) strong 

contrast between polytheism and monotheism (BB 22 f.) 

DI y47 f.,97f- 

Divine and Human Elements in Earlier Chaps., BW iv., 266 ff., 349 fT., 

407 ff. ; Heb. Stories of Deluge, BW iv., 20 ff. ; Deluge in other Literatures, 

BW iv., ii4ff. ; Mythic Elem. in O. T., BW vi., 115 ff., 194 ff. ; Babylon 

Account of Creation, BW iii., 17 ft*., 109 ff. 

EXODUS. 
I. (a) Between what two points does Exodus carry on history 
of nation? {b) Two parts into which this period roughly 
divided, and main subjects of each ? (c) Three clearly-marked 



1 6 Leviticus. 

stages of the history ? 2. How Exodus exhibits advance upon 
Genesis. 3. (a) Difference in sphere of religion? (b) Re- 
ligious belief probably animating people in common with fore- 
fathers ? 4. (a) Upon what basis Theocracy established at 
Sinai? (b) Where does Decalogue again appear, under con- 
siderably different form ? (c) Old and probable supposition 
respecting original form of Decalogue ? 5. Historical impor- 
tance of Exodus to subsequent books of Old Testament ? 6. 
Fundamental conception of Exodus regarding Israel ? J. Basis 
some observances of Exodus may have had ? 8. What has been 
shown with respect to the Plagues f 

I. (a) Death of Joseph and erection of Tabernacle, (b) 
history before reaching Sinai — Oppression, departure 
from Egypt, journey to Sinai ; at Sinai — Law at Sinai, 
ratification of Covenant, setting up of Tabernacle ; (c) 
nation enslaved, 7'edeemed, set apart to God's service (CC 
36, b [96]). 2. History, not now of individuals but of 
nation (BB 26). 3. (a) Continuous communication of 
Divine will to whole people, instead of occasional revela- 
tions to individuals, (d) Consciousness of Divine call 
and anticipation of new home (BB 27). 4. (a) Ten Com- 
mandments and Book of the Covenant (LOT 28), {b) Deut. 
v. 6-21. For example, Fourth Commandment has ad- 
dition : "in order that thy man-servant and thy maid- 
servant may rest as well as thou," etc. LOT 30 f. (c) 
That consisted merely of commandme?its themselves, ex- 
planatory comments being added afterwards {ibid.). 5. 
They presuppose Exodus (BB 28). 6. Holiness of na- 
tion. 7. Older and simpler usages. Vide Sup?-a 5, (8), 
(p. 13). 8. Were probably intensified forms of common 
visitations (BB 30). 

LEVITICUS. 

I. Inappropriateness of name? 2. Where scene laid and 
what the mode of life ? 3. Character of laws ? 4. Under what 



Leviticus. 17 

different aspects nation regarded in first two legislations (as 
many consider them, cf. OTJC p. 318) and Levitical legisla- 
tion respectively ? 5. Five sections of which book consists ? 
6. Law of Holiness, (a) Several chapters of Leviticus sup- 
posed to have belonged at one time to a distinct Law-book ; by 
what name this designated ? (b) To what does it bear striking 
resemblance and how this accounted for by some ? {c) Formula 
introducing many laws of Holiness ? (d ) By what peculiarity 
H. distinguished from other parts of the Law ? (e) How H. 
considered by man}- to differ from the rest of P. ? (/) How 
explained ? 7. (a) What noticeable as to groups into which 
regulations about sacrifices fall ? (b) as to occurrence of num- 
ber ten as basis of codification ? 8. What do the laws seem to 
bear on their face ? 9. What noteworthy as to Feast of Taber- 
nacles? 10. In what did Levitical offerings reach highest 
point? II. Against what the nation specially guarded ? 12. 
Of which Documents does Leviticus form part throughout ? 13. 
Post-Exilic origin, (a) In what light the Levitical Legisla- 
tion regarded by many at present time ? (b) Caution, however, 
to be observed ? (c) Question arising in this connection ? (d ) 
Assumption to be rejected ? (e) That there is an element of 
fiction in the Levitical code is admitted by advocates of new 
view ; on what principle is it sought to justify it ? (/) What 
has led many believing in Divine origin of distinctive features 
of Old Testament religion to regard Leviticus as post- Exilic ? 

I. Levites mentioned only once and incidentally, 
whereas priests everywhere ( BB 33) . 2. At Sinai. Of 
desert. 3. Mostly religious and ceremotiial. 4. As " na- 
tion " and as "church." Word "congregation" 
characteristic of P. OTJC 320. 5. (1) Sacrificial ordi- 
nances, (2) ritual of consecration of priests, (3) ceremonial 



1 8 Numbers. 

uncleayiness, (4) Day of Atonement, (5) Law of Holiness 
(CC 36, b [96]). £>. {a) Law of Holiness. (Chaps, xvii.- 
xxvi.) (CC 37, a [97]). Symbol H. LOT 43 ff. (b, Legis- 
lation in Ezekiel. By supposition that Bzekiel the 
author. By others, supposed to have been derived from 
his legislation. Traditional view, that Ezekiel borrowed 
from Leviticus. (CC I.e. ) (c) M Ye shall be holy, for I 
Jahveh your God am holy . ' ' \d) Frequent recurrence of 
"I am Jahveh " at end of paragraphs, (e) By differ- 
ence in style and motive (LOT 43 ; cf. 54). (f) That 
probably H. has basis of older priestly legislation. 7. 
{a) Three groups, each of ten instructions, (b) In all 
laws of Pentateuch, is thought that each distinct subject 
treated under ten provisions. 1 8. Evidence of having 
originated at different times (BB 35). 9. That are ap- 
parently two accounts. CC 37, a [97]. 10. Sin-off er- 
ing and Day of A tonement (BB 38). II. Idolatry. 12. 
Priestly Code (LOT 39). 13. (a) As ritual code of Second 
Temple (OTJC 382 ff. ). (b) This code not to be thought 
of as altogether new^. (c) What merely law for Second 
Temple, and what history of original Mosaic Sanctuary, 
(d) That not every law called Mosaic to be taken as lit- 
erally given in wilderness. [e) In early laws of all 
nations necessary modifications habitually carried out by- 
legal fictions. OTJC /. c. (f) Convergence of two 
lines of evidence — literary and historical ; former method 
indicating, by diversity of style, incongruities, &c. in 
different parts, that whole Law not the work of single 
writer, but belongs to different periods ; latter, that pre- 
Exilic institutions of Israel, as appearing in historical 
books, not in conformity with Levitical Law. OTJC 
390 ff. ; cf. Lect. IX., and pp. 422 ff. 
See Priests' Code, BW xi, 440 ff. 

NUMBERS. 

I. To what has name reference ? 2. Scene of first section ? 
3. Substance of second ? 4. Nature of account of this period ? 
5. Scene of last section ? 6. As to how long time is record 
1 BD. s.v. Levit.. p. 1647, a. 



Numbers. 19 

almost silent ? 7. What fact bearing on question of subsistence 
for such vast numbers in the wilderness? 8. Probable mode 
of life during wanderings ? 9. Regarding worship of period, 
what brought out in Joshua V. ? 10. How matter presented 
by the prophets ? II. An indication of later hand? 12. And 
one to the effect that at least not all the narrative by Moses f 
13. For what is Numbers remarkable ? 14. Striking case of 
repetition ? 15. What supposed by some regarding account 
of the Spies ? 16. A narrative remarkable for high numbers 
involved ? 

I. Two numbering s of people ; at Sinai, and in plains 
of Moab (BB 41). 2. Sinai. 3. Journey from Sinai to 
plains of Moab (BB 42). 4. Events not in regular order, 
but interspersed with laws. 5. Plains of Moab. 6. 38 
years (BB 43). 7. Even now, when almost total absence 
of cultivation, large numbers are supported. At time of 
Exodus must have been immensely more productive 
(BB 45). 8. Not incessant marching, but life like that 
of modern Arabs — tribes scattered over country in search 
of pasture (BB.46). 9. Distinctive requirements of 
Levitical law not observed (BB 47). 10. Israel said to 
have served strange gods in wilderness. II. Ahtmb.^zx. 
32 : " while children of Israel in the wilderness. ' ' 
12. Fact that list of stations (eh. xxxiii) said to have 
been written by Moses suggests his not having written 
narrative referring to them. 13. Fragments of ancient 
poetry (CC 38, a [100]). 14. Five entire verses repeated 
verbatim, twelve times. {Numb. vii. 13, 19, 25, etc.) A 
characteristic of P. (LOT 56 f.) 15. That it is double 
(LOT 58), cf. OTJC 401 ff. So Rebellion of Korah, etc. 
regarded as made up of two or three narratives. (LOT 
59 ff. ) History of Balaam also considered composite. 
16. War against Midian. 12,000 Israelites, without loss 
of a single man, carry off 32,000 virgins and 800,000 
head of cattle, (eh. xxxi), LOT 63 f. 

On Early Songs, see COT 18 if.; Story of Spies, BW i, 168 ff. 



20 Deuteronomy. 

DEUTERONOMY. 

I. (a) Scene of book? (b) Time covered? (c) To what point 
history brought down ? 2. (a) Particulars in which book differs 
strikingly from rest of Pentateuch ? (b) Of what, book made 
up ? 3. Special measures for preserving memory both of Eaw 
and events of wilderness life ? 4. Of what do last two chapters 
but one consist mainly ? 5. With what, hortatory character of 
Deuteronomy in keeping ? 6. Show that legislation more than 
repetition of that of preceding books. 7. Difference between 
Deuteronomy and Leviticus in respect to Priesthood ? 8. Feat- 
ure in worship strongly insisted on ? 9. Modern view of book, 

(a) View held regarding Deuteronomy by many modern critics ? 

(b) Assuming three stages of legislation in the Pentateuch 
supposed by modern critics, what middle position offers itself 
between traditional opinion and that of critics ? (c) Two con- 
siderations in answer to charge that Deuteronomy, if not by 
Moses, is forgery f (d) How explained that speeches ascribed 
to Moses that are not by him ? (e) On what ground maintained 
that this practice followed in Old Testament ? {/) So far from 
being forgery, it is urged that Deuteronomy is simpry what? 
(g) And how stands case with respect to inspiration f (h) In 
what way objection met that laws occur that would be out of 
place in century 8-7 B.C.? 10. How does influence of Deuter- 
onomy in subsequent books of Old Testament appear ? 

I. (a) Still in plains of Moab. (b) 40 days, exclusive 
of days of mourning for Moses, (c) Death of Moses and 
eve of entrance into Promised L,and. 2. (a) Hortatory 
tone; Moses speaks in own name (BB 50). (b) Ad- 
dresses by Moses, reviewing past and giving counsel for 
future. 3. (a) Law to be inscribed on plastered stone at 



Joshua. 21 

Mount Ebal ; (b) to be read every seven years before 
people ; (c) Moses to compose historical song. 4. Song 
of Moses, and Blessing of Moses. 5. Situation described 
in book. 6. (a) Omission of what specially referred to 
desert, (b) Variance between Leviticus and Deuteronomy, 
from change in circumstances (BB 52 f. ). 7. In Le- 
viticus, "sons of Aaron " distinguished from Levites ; in 
Deuteronomy, scarcely any distinction. 8. Central Sanc- 
tuary (BB 54). 9. (a) (1) Legislation of Deuteronomy 
earlier than Leviticus, (2) book composed in same age 
discovered in, (3) was basis of Josiah' 's reformation, (4) 
till then, Book of Covenant only authoritative code, 15) 
Deuteronomy ascribed to Moses in interest of centralisa- 
tion of worship (BB 55), (b) that stages neither existed 
in time of Moses, nor separated by centuries from each 
other (BB 56). {c) That book does not claim to be by 
Moses ; that laws not inventions of supposed author 
(LOT 83 f. ). (d) Common with ancient historians 
freely to put speeches in mouth of their characters (LOT 
84 ). (e) Of great similarity in style of speeches to nar- 
rative itself. David, Solomon, and prophets express them- 
selves in Chronicles in manner distinctively belonging to 
later age (ibid.), (f) Adaptation of older legislation to 
newer needs ; new element being hortatory setting (LOT 
85). (g) Inspiration in no respect less than that of any 
other anonymous part of Old Testament, (h) That they 
are (1) naturally included in recapitulation of Mosaic 
principles supposed to be addressed to people just before 
entering Canaan, (2) would indirectly be of service 
against tendencies of later date (ibid.). 10. In adoption 
of its religious terminology. Jeremiah' s phraseology, 
e. g., evidently modelled upon it (LOT 95). 

Book of the Law, COT 47 ff.; Deuter. Code, OTJC, Lect. xii. See also 
B (5) vii, 151 ff.; ET viii, 196 ff., E (i) x, 16 ff. BW xi, 246 ff., 438 ff. 

JOSHUA. 

I. Of what three parts does Joshua consist? 2. Modern view 
of book ? 3. Why name Hexateuch now used for Pentateuch 
and Joshua together? 4. Striking omission in account of 



22 Judges. 



Conquest ? 5. Probable view as to time required for Conquest ? 

6. From what ancient writing is extract given ? In what 

connection ? 

I. Conquest of Canaan, (2) partition of land, (3) hor- 
tatory conclusion (BB 59). 2. From differences in style, 
composite origin inferred — to great extent, continuation 
of Pentateuch documents. Cf. LOT 96 f. 3. Because 
contents and structure of Joshua show connection with 
Pentateuch (LOT 96). 4. Conquest of largest part of 
land not referred to (BB 62 ). 5. That work much slower 
and more difficult than might be inferred at first (BB 63). 
LOT 96 f. 6. Book of Jashar. In Chap. x. 12, 13 (Sun 
standing still). LOT 101. 

JUDGES. 

I (a). How word ' 'Judges" to be taken ? (b) Extent of their 
authority ? 2. Literary character of work ? 3. Three divisions 
of Judges, and substance of each ? 4. Number of the Judges? 
5. As to chronology, what seems probable ? 6. To what differ- 
ent periods does introduction seem to belong? 7. Apparent 
significance of different materials observable in book ? 8. From 
a statement in closing chapters, what may be inferred as to 
time of writing Judges ? 9. (a) Two views regarding Judg. 
xviii. 30: "until the day of captivity of land" ? (b) What, 
however, clear? 10. Probable source of accounts of Judges? 
II. Noticeable feature in framework into which these old 
stories fitted ? 12. Plan on which compilation made ? 13. Two 
dangers to which nation exposed? 14. Contrast between re- 
ligious life in Judges and in preceding books ? (b) What this 
by many considered to show ? 

I. (a) In sense of maintaining cause of anyone. Yet 
judical function not excluded (BB 67). (b) Merely local 



Ruth. 23 

(LOT 157). 2. Series of sketches of leaders and times ; 
not continuous narrative. 3.(1) State of country at begin- 
ning of period, (2) history of Judges, (3) Appendix: 
Migration of Dan to North, and War against Benjamites 
(LOT 151). 4. Twelve, not counting usurper Abi?ne- 
lech, and regarding Deborah and Barak as one (BB 68). 
5. (1 ) That 480 years between Exodus and commenceme7it 
of Temple (1 Ki. vi. 1) divided into 12 round periods of 40 
years, (2) overlapping of periods (BB 69 ).' 6. One, at 
time of Joshua ; other, of Samuel (BB 70). Chap. i. 1— 
ii. 5 supposed to be fragments of old account of in- 
dividual efforts of separate tribes ; account being parallel 
with Joshua, rather than continuation (LOT 152 f.). 7. 
That different parts come from different hands (BB 71). 

8. From statement that there was no king in Israel maj^ be 
inferred that some portions written during Monarchy. 

9. (a) Reference to overthrow of Northern kingdom ; 
hence evidence of composition in time of Captivity ; (2) 
that some lesser calamity meant (BB /. c). (b) That 
portions of book much earlier than Captivity. 10. Tribal 
or family traditions preserved orally (BB 72). ^11. Fre- 
quently recurring expressions, e. g. , Children of Israel 
did evil ; anger of the Lord kindled against them ; peo- 
ple sold into hand of So-and-so, and served for so many 
years. Jehovah raised up saviour ; and land had rest forty 
years. 12. Of illustrating single guiding principle. 13. 
(1) Corrupting influence of inhabitants of country ; (2) 
destruction of own nationality (BB 73). l 14. (a) In Judges, 
no reference to Laic, nor to Tabernacle service ; what 
told is out of keeping with Law (BB 74). (b) That re- 
ligious institutions of Israel developed out of crude stage. 
OTjC2 35 f.,cf. 267 ff. 

y 

RUTH. 
I. Connection with Judges f 2. To what period does com- 
position belong ? 

I. Though probably written at different times, events 
occurred in time of Judges (BB 68). 2. By some, 

1 Cf. LOT 152. 



24 Books of Samuel. 

considered pre-Exilic ; by most, Exilic or post-Exilic 
(EOT 426 f.). 
See E (1) ii., 1 ff. 

BOOKS OF SAMUEE. 

I. (a) Different ways of designating Books of Samuel and 
Kings ? (b) Objection to taking all as one whole ? 2. Why clear 
that Samuel not the author of Books of Samuel? 3. Appro- 
priateness of present title ? 4. (a) Time covered ? (b) Event 
forming dividing line between 1 and 2 Samuel? 5. What 
constitutes close of books ? 6. Where does the psalm of 2 
Sam. xxii. appear again (with variations) ? *]. In grouping 
contents of the books, point to be noted ? 8. Suggestion as to 
reason for 2 Samuel ending where it does ? 9. Round what 
three characters does history centre? 10. (a) Nature of evi- 
dence for time of composition ? (b) To what different periods 
the books assigned? II. Indications of indebtedness to pre- 
vious writers? 12. View of man}^ regarding account of 
David's entrance on public life? 13. How supposed to re- 
ceive support from EXX? 14. Another consideration? 15. 
Another apparent discrepancy ? 16. One of the most striking 
features of religious life described in these books ? 17. Notice- 
able absence from account? 18. Noteworthy manifestation of 
prophetic activity in Samuel's day ? 1 9. How prophecy of this 
period explained by some? 20. Part really performed by 
prophecy in relation to priesthood '? 21. In what sense Samuel 
the first prophet ? 22. Points regarding these early prophets 
as to which we can only conjecture? 23. Importance of pro- 
phetic movement at this time regularly embodied ? 24. What 
associated with prophecy in Samuel's time ? 25. One meaning 



Books of Samuel. 25 

of word for "prophesy?" 26. What else besides prophecy 
inay have received impulse at same time ? 27. To what work 
did some prophetical men of this time apply themselves ? How 
this appears? 28. Why time of Samuel favorable for this 
work ? 29. How light thus thrown on finished style of first 
writing prophets ? 30. Great historical event of period of 
Samuel? 31. Distinctive principle underlying David's admin- 
istration ? 

I. (a) With Jews, Samuel and Kings each one book ; 
in LXX. the whole four regarded as one series and 
known as the " Books of Kingdoms." In Vulgate, 
"kingdoms" changed to "Kings" (BB 77), cf. LOT 
162. (b) Authors, times of composition, and character- 
istics all different. 2. His death spoken of in early part. 
3. Samuel's influence extends to end of period described 
in book. 4. (#) Birth of Samuel to end of David's pub- 
lic life (LOT 163). (b) Death of Saul. 5. Appendix 
of miscellaneous contents (2 Sam. xxi.-xxiv. ). In- 
terrupts continuity between preceding chapters and 
beginning of 1 Kings (LOT 173). 6. Psalm xviii. 
7. That parts run into and presuppose one another (LOT 
163). 8. That was determined by written materials 
drawn upon. But some have supposed that early part of 
1 Kings may have been originally joined to Books of 
Samuel {^BB 78). 9. Samuel, Saul, David. 10. [a) Only 
very general and indecisive (BB 82 f.). (b) Exile. II. 
( I ) Book ofjashar quoted, (2) Poetical passages — Song of 
Hannah (1 Sam. ii. 1-10), Lament over Abner (2 Sam. 
iii. 33 f. ), 2 Sam. xxii. (= Ps. xviii.), and "last 
words of David" (2 Sam. xxiii. 1-7) BB 83. Song of 
Hannah considered by many not to have been composed 
with reference to Hannah (LOT 164). 12. That two 
accounts have been fused into one (BB 84). For ex- 
ample, in one account David a mature "man of war" 
when brought before king ; in other, a shepherd lad, in- 
experienced in warfare (LOT 169), cf. OTJC 119 if. 
13. By omissions of Vatican MS. (BB 84). But differ- 
ences not altogether removed in this way (LOT 170). 



26 Books of Kings. 

In i Sam. xviii. 6-30 (Saul's jealousy) considerable 
omissions occur in I,XX (Vat. MS.)- See OTJC 122 ff. 
14. Hebrew text apparently less pure than in most Old 
Testament books (BB 84). 15. In 1 Sam. vii. 13 Philis- 
tines said to have come no more into'coasts of Israel all 
the days of Samuel, yet (ix. 16) Saul is made king to 
save Israel from Philistines. And severity of oppression 
is described (BB I.e.). 16. Prophetic activity beginning 
with Samuel and its permanent influence (BB 85). 17. 
Of explanation of origin of prophecy. I§. Kxcitement 
and musical exercises of bands of prophets. 19. As 
simply result of patriotic fervor (BB 85). 20. Prophecy 
not, as some suppose, a reaction against Priesthood, but 
its function to call attention to greater worth of spirit 
than of form (BB 86). 21. With him first, prophecy an 
organized movement. 22. Way of spending time, ex- 
ternal union, relation to subsequent schools. 23. Con- 
tinued all through history of people, a powerful influence 
in national life (BB 87). 24. Connection with music. 
25. " Rave." The son of the prophets who came with 
message to Jehu was described as a " mad fellow " (BB 
87). 26. Sacred Song (BB 88). 27. Writing history. 
(2). In Chron. various prophets mentioned as writers 
of history. 28. National spirit had sprung up in peo- 
ple. 29. Shows literature had been long growing. 
Some have supposed no literature existed before Amos 
and Hosea (BB 90). 30. Establishment of Monarchy ; 
in particular, David' 's line. 31. Recognition of God as 
nation's ruler (BB 91). 
On religious worship of period of Samuel, see OTJC 269 ff. On Samuel, 
see also E (4) vi., 98 ff. ; Schools of prophets, E (1) iii., 241 ff. 

BOOKS OF KINGS. 

I. Period covered ? 2. (a) What naturally suggested as to 
time of writing ? {b) And as to country in which written ? 
(e) A reference not harmonizing with, this view? Probable 
supposition in consequence ? 3. To whom authorship ascribed 
by Talmud f An objection to this view? 4. Three-fold 



Books of Kings. 27 

division of books ? 5. Idea present to writer throughout? 6. 
Literary framework ? 7: Method of giving history of divided 
kingdom ? 8. Probable sources and plan ? 9. With passages 
of what other books are parts of Kings in close verbal agree- 
ment? 10. (a) As regards sources used by writer, feature dis- 
tinguishing Kings from preceding books ? (b) Nature of works 
referred to as authorities ? (c) Besides these, what compositions 
of different sort very likely made use of? (d) Noticeable feat- 
ure of references to Elijah and Elisha? II. {a) Position of 
prophets in time of kings? (b) Which prophet not mentioned, 
though very prominent in contemporaneous history ? (c) 
Indebtedness of books to prophetic tone? (d) Of what this 
tone consists ? (e) How prophetical spirit shown in reproof of 
people? 12. Idea of some modern writers regarding the Law ? 
13. By what external evidence historic credibility of Kings 
attested ? 14. Result of comparison of chronology of Kings 
with that of monuments? 15. Two periods into which w T hole 
time between Exodus and Return from Captivity divided ? 
16. Suggestion presenting itself in Ki?igs as well as Judges? 

I. Accession of Solomon to 37th year of Captivity 
(BB 92). 2. (a) From work closing before end of Cap- 
tivity, that author did not survive Exile, (b) Among 
exiles in Babylon ; from phrase indicating side of Eu- 
phrates the writer was living on. (c) To kingdom of 
Judah and Temple as still existing — That present books 
another edition of a work before Exile. 3. Jeremiah. — 
Resemblances in Jeremiah occur in what probably is edi- 
torial addition (BB 93). Though not Jeremiah himself, 
yet was one like-minded and almost certainly contempo- 
raneous and writing under same influences (LOT 189). 
4. (1) Solomon's reign. (2) Events of two kingdoms, (3) of 
kingdom of Judah. 5. Promise to House of David never 
lost sight of (BB 99). 6. Beginning, continuance, and 



28 Books of Chronicles. 

close of various reigns indicated by recurrence of similar 
phrases, i. e., how old when began to reign, how long 
reign, mother's name (in case of Judali), character of 
reign, place of burial, next king's name, reference to 
authorities used. 7. First, events of Northern kingdom, 
then contemporary history of Judah. What connected 
with both, related separately under each. 8. Records 
of kingdoms in separate forms. To give in original 
words what is used. Necessary changes not always 
made, e. g., "staves of ark remain unto this day," as 
placed in Solomon's time (BB 100). 9. Isaiah (2 Ki. 
xviii. 15 -xx. 19 = Is. xxxvi.-xxxix). and Chronicles. 
10. (a) Refers by name to them, (b) Probably State 
Records, (c) Of more popular character. About men 
like Elijah. (d) Interspersed in general narrative, 
forming distinct wholes. II. (a) Closely connected 
with religious and political movements of nation (BB 
102). (b) Jeremiah, (c) Without it, would be bald 
chronicle, (d) In viewing events as so ordered that 
faithfulness to God brings blessing, and unfaithfulness 
His displeasure and nation' s decline, (e) What rebuked, 
not neglect of ceremony, but forgetfulness of God. 12. 
That was nothing but "instruction" of prophets (BB 
104). See OTJC 298 ff. 13. Records of neighboring 
countries. 14. Agreement as to date oiFall of Samaria; 
discrepancies before and after (BB 107). Fall of 
Samaria, B.C. 722. 15. About 480 years each, building 
of Temple being middle point. 16. That these two 
periods divided each into 12 parts. 

On religious worship of period, see OTJC, Lect. ix. 
BOOKS OF CHRONICLES. 

I. Whence name? 2. By whom divided into two? 3. 
Probable approximate date and evidence for this ? 4. (a) Dif- 
ference in conception from all preceding books ? (b) And in 
literary form ? 5. Chief aspect of the history ? 6. Restricted 
aim in another respect ? 7. (a) What form does introduction 
take? (b) Aim in view? 8. Probable reason for passing over 



Books of Chronicles. 29 

David's reign at Hebron f 9. Sources very likely drawn upon 
by Author ? 10. On what ground Chronicles disparaged ? 

I. From Jerome, who called them " Chronicle of whole 
of Sacred history." Some editions of Vulgate gave 
books the name ' ' Chronicles. ' ' LXX applied title mean- 
ing ' ' things passed over," i. e., by previous writers — not 
a good designation (BB no). 2. LXX. Chronicles with 
Ezra and Nehemiah really form single continuous work 
(LOT 484). 3. Close of Persian domination, or early 
part of Grecian, (2) Decaying period of language, (3) 
late genealogies (BB 1 10 f.). Di'iver thinks date later 
than B.C. 300 rather than before (LOT 487). 4. (a) 
View given of whole period covered by other books 
(BB 111). (b) Fondness for genealogical lists. 5. 
Religious — more about Temple and &c. than wars and 
general affairs. Same religious interest observable in 
Ezra and Nehemiah. Reass styles entire work ' ' Ecclesi- 
astical Chronicles of Jerusalem" (LOT 486). 6. Refer- 
ence almost exclusively to Judah (BB in). 7. (a) 
Almost entirely genealogies. {b) To lead up to history 
of Judah (BB 112). 8. Main interest of author in re- 
ligion and worship. 9. (a) Book of Kings of fudah and 
Israel, (b) Samuel and Kings, (c) writings designated by 
names of prophetical men, (d) various registers, &c. 
(BB 1 15 f. ) In many cases, additions by author of Chron- 
icles show didactic aim, with tendency to refer to moral 
causes what happened. Speeches uniformly display 
peculiarities of Chronicler' s own style, and are composed 
by him (LOT 499). 10. That have little independent 
value ; that where differ from other books is through 
misconceptions of later time or even falsification (BB 
116 f.). Is considered difficult to take as strictly histor- 
ical what is peculiar to Chronicles. Figures systemati- 
cally higher than in rest of Old Testament, while there 
is no reason for supposing text specially corrupt. Scale 
on which events represented is such that had things 
really happened just as described they could scarcely 
have been passed over by Samuel and Kings. Speeches 
are from different point of view from that of earlier 
accounts. Chronicler seems to have reflected spirit of 



So Ezra and Nehemiah. 

own age, and so to have idealized past. But, on other 
hand, no reason to charge him with wilful perversion. 
He merely describes things as he really supposed them 
to have been (EOT 500 ft.). In Ch 7 vn icles, some think 
we have first beginnings of that transformation of history 
into Haggadah, which is so conspicuous in later Jewish 
literature (Sayce, High. Crit. and Mon., pp. 461 ff.). 
Even by some writers not in sympathy with modern 
criticism in the main, is admitted that Chronicles a 
" secondarv authority in matters of Israeiitish history " 
{Lex Mosaica, p. 288). See also OTJC 140 ff., BW v. 
97 ff. 

For Speeches, see E (5) i., 241 ff., ii., 140 ff, 286 ff. ; Midrashic 
element, iv., 426 ff. 

EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. 

I. Why these books go natural^- together? 2. By what 
name called in early times? 3. How treated in Hebrew 
Canon ? 4. Probable explanation of varying treatment ? 5. 
Wiry supposed that Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles originally 
one continuous work? 6. Eength of time over which Ezra- 
Nehemiah extends ? 7. Three divisions of the history ? 8. 
Two prophets belonging to first period ? 9. How indicated 
that in present form books not by Ez?-a and Nehemiah ? 10. 
Supposition as to wa}- in which books reached present form ? 
II. (a) Noticeable feature as to language? (b) mistaken idea 
regarding language spoken by returned Exiles ? 12. New 
element in religious history from time of Ezra, and why ? 13. 
How Legalism and Rabbinism the natural fruit ? 

I. Ezra and Nehemiah contemporaries. Much about 
Ezra in Nehemiah (BB 120). 2. 1st and 2d Ezra. 
1 Esdras (so-called in EXX and A. V., though 
at other times 3 Esdras) is made up mainly from 2 
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. In Vulgate, 1 Esdras 



Esther. 31 

= our Ezra, and 2 Esdras = our Nehemiah (LI 262, 
n). 3. Put separately yet regarded as one. 4. Felt to 
have common origin in time and situation ; yet in part 
to be work of both Ezra and Nehemiah ; on other hand, 
present shape supposed due to common influence. 5. 
Chronicles ends in middle of sentence ; this carried on in 
opening words of Ezra (BB 127). 6. About a century, 
i. e., from first year of Cyrus (B.C. 538) to 32nd year 
of Artaxerxes (B.C. 432). 7. (1) From first Return to 
completion of Temple, (2) Ezra 's leadership of second 
colony, (3) joint labors of Ezra and iVehemiah in es- 
tablishing community at Jerusalem. 8. Haggai and 
Zechariah. 9. In places, times of Ezra and Nehemiah 
regarded as past. Some lists also belong later (BB 126 
f.). Some parts written in first person ; these known as 
" Memoirs " ; others in third (LOT 511). 10. Writings 
of Ezra and Nehemiah served as nucleus for subsequent 
writings of Chronicler (BB 127 f.). 1 1. Some parts in 
Aramaic (LOT 508, 515), i. e., a Western dialect of that 
language, dialect spoken in Palestine, {b) that Jew T S for- 
got ' Hebrezv in Babylon, and spoke "Chaldee" on re- 
turning to their land. Haggai and Zechariah and other 
post-Exilic writers use Hebrew ; Aramaic exceptional. 
Gradually, however, Aramaic came into use from asso- 
ciation with neighbors in Palestine. Term " Chaldee " 
here a misnomer (471). 12. Zeal in study of Scripture, 
(2) Law a sharp separation between Jews and heathen 
(BB 129). 13. Were result of excessive anxiety to pre- 
serve nation from surrounding idolatry. There being 
no longer political independence, all energy devoted to 
religion that might else have been bestowed in part upon 
public affairs. 1 

ESTHER. 

I. How Esther strongly distinguished from other books of 

Old Testament ? 2. Primary purpose of book ? 3. To what 

special division of Hagiographa does it belong ? 4. Show high 

esteem in which Esther held by later Jews. 5. Probable date ? 

1 On Ezra, see K (3) vi., 53 ff., 287 ff. 



f 



3 2 Book of Job. 

6. Character of narrative ? 7. How book received by Christian 
writers, and why ? 

I . Not part of the connected series ; only episode. 
Other features as well place it apart from all other Old 
Testament books (BB 131). 2. To explain Feast of 
Purim. 3. Five Rolls, which were read in Synagogue 
at certain sacred seasons ; Esther at Feast of Purim (LOT 
409). 4. Regarded almost as highly as Law itself (BB 
131). 5. At least not earlier than Chronicle s-Ezra- 
Nehemiah ; near close of Persian donii?iation (BB 132). 
Battle of Issus, B.C. 333. 6. Hardly wholly free from 
improbabilities. Esther, e. g., it would seem could 
hardh^ have been queen ; for at time queen was another 
woman, and one unlike Esther in character. Writer at 
least seems to have worked up his materials so as to 
produce striking effects. Most modern critics suppose a 
basis of history, but also elements not strictly historical 
(LOT 453 f.). 7. Depreciated, canonicity questioned, 
tone condemned (BB 134). Last of books of Hebrew 
Canon to obtain sanction in Church (LI 213 f.). Ewald 
remarks (LOT 457) that in passing to Esther from other 
books of Old Testament we " fall from heaven to earth." 
In regard to charge of absence of religious spirit mark- 
ing work, Orelli (PRE 2 , iv. 347 f.) says that but for the 
consciousness that God alone could save from threatened 
danger, there would have been no meaning in the fast 
by which Esther and the others prepared themselves. 
Further, that MordecaV s words (Esth. iv. 13 f.) suggest 
his reliance upon God's promise of protection to His 
people ; that absence of religious allusions may perhaps 
be explained by dislike to introduce such topics on 
festal occasion. 

BOOK OF JOB. 

I. Contents. Five parts of book ? 

(a) Prologue, (b) Debate of Job with Friends, (e) 
Speeches of Elihu. (d) Of the Lord out of Storm. 
(e) Epilogue. (BB 136 ff.) 



Book of Job. 33 

2. Kind of Composition, (i) How may book be de- 
scribed? (2) Fiction, or History? (3) Why not History? 
(4) To what class of Hebrew literature belonging ? 

(i) Dramatic Poem, but not Drama. (CB xxi.) (2) 
Generally considered to have historical basis. (3) In- 
ferred (among other reasons) from (a) Scene in heaven, 
(b) artistic character of debates (CB xvii). (4) Wisdom 
Literature. Book is religious philosophy (CB 385). 

3. Plan of Work. (1) On what principle speeches ar- 
ranged? (2) Gap occurring ? 

(i) Three cycles, of six speeches each, by friends in 
turn ; with Job's reply to each. (2) In third cycle, 
Zophar silent. 

4. Purpose, (i) Problem of book? (2) Idea of which 
friends took for granted the correctness? (3) Author's pur- 
pose and where to be found ? 

(1) How to reconcile suffering of righteous with 
righteousness of God. (2) That suffering a proof of 
sinfulness, degree of former indicating degree of latter. 
(3) (a) To combat this idea, and show that suffering not 
necessarily punishment ; may be no more than trial of 
righteousness, (b) In Prologue. 

5. Prologue. (1) Function? (2) Substance? (3) In liter- 
ary form, how do Prologue and Epilogue differ from rest of 
book (with unimportant exceptions) ? 

(I) Key to action of poem (CB xxx). Even solves 
mystery that is topic of discussion in poem (CB 25). 
(2) Job's wealth and piety. His disinterestedness called 
in question in council of heaven by the Adversary, who 
then receives permission to bring disaster upon Job. 
This happens, and Job stands test. He is again 
commended by the Almighty in the heavenly council, 
and again Satan is permitted to afflict him, this time the 
blow falling upon the sufferer's own person. Job still 



34 Book of Job. 

remains true to God. Hearing of his calamities, three 
of his friends come to condole with him. Then Job 
loses self-control. (3) Is in prose. 

6. Job's Attitude to God (1) What point does Job per- 
sistently maintain ? (2) Some indications of strength of convic- 
tion ? (3) Quote fine passage expressive of Job's determination 
not to swerve from his path, come what may. (4) Charges 
against God put into Job's mouth ? (5) What saved Job from 
renouncing God ? (6) In his sore perplexity Job speaks almost 
as if were three different Gods; how? (7) Two very striking 
thoughts arising out of Job's full assurance of ultimate restora- 
tion to God's favor? (8) (a) Popular Hebrew conception of 
death? (b) Advance beyond it by faith of pious? (c) Peculi- 
arity of Job's position? (9) Meaning of "Redeemer" as used 
by Job ? (10) As to question of a resurrection body, what may 
well be the case? (Il) How may we suppose the I^ord's 
answer out of storm brought about great change in Job's atti- 
tude? (12) So far as appears, what the immediate source of 
influence ? 

(i) His innocence. (2) (a) Repeatedly expressed 
desire to meet Almighty face to face, (b) wish that pro- 
testation of innocence could be graven in rock, (c) that 
he might have "indictment " to wear as crown of honor, 
(d) assurance that time must come when God will 
acknowledge Job's innocence. (3) "Yet shall the 
righteous hold on his way," etc. (Ch. xvii. 9). (4) Of 
injustice to Job and in world at large ; of unaccountable 
hostility to Job ; of set determination to crush him. (5) 
Unappeasable longing for restored fellowship with God 
(CB 80). (6) God of past, who watched over him 
lovingly; of present, persecuting him; of future, who 
one day will receive him back into gracious favor (CB 
122). (7) (a) What a precious boon it would be if only 



Book of Job. 35 

God would hide Job in Sheol, till the day of His anger 
was over (CB 103) ! (b) That even though Job sank 
into grave dishonored, and even after his body had 
perished, Job's righteousness should be vindicated before 
men, and that by none other than God Himself. (8) (a) 
Dreamlike existence, (b) That communion with God 
not broken off in death. \c) Communion with God already 
severed in present life (CB /. c). (9) Not Deliverer from 
sin, but "Vindicator" (R. V. viarg.) from unjust accu- 
sation. (10) That Job wholly taken up with idea of 
seeing God ; question as to how, not present in mind 
(CB 295). (II) Not by meeting Job's intellectual diffi- 
culties, but speaking immediately to his spirit, by reve- 
lation of Himself (CB 277. cf. 259 f.). (12) Divine glory 
in natural world. 

7. Treatment of Job by his Friends. (1) Their gradual 
change of standpoint ? (2) What particularly excited their 
indignation? (3) Probable explanation of Divine condemnation 
of friends ? 

(i) (a) First believe that all will come out well, if 
only Job be penitent and patient. The upright never 
cut off (Ch. iv. 7). {b) Then that Job's obstinate refusal 
to confess his sin, and Job's daring charges against God 
are proof of his deserving to the full all the suffering that 
has befallen him (Ch. xi. 6). (c) Finally, get so far as 
to accuse him of definite sins, for which they draw upon 
their imagination (CB 163). (2) Irreverence and bold- 
ness of Job toward God and in speaking of Him. (3) 
Not, of course, their seeking to justify God's dealings, 
but perhaps their disingenuousness in not admitting to 
be true what was true (CB 288). 

8. Its Effect upon Job. (1) Opposite emotions roused in 
him ? (2) Different methods of defence resorted to ? (3) How 
reasoning of Friends characterized ? (4) His only hope ? 

(i) Longing for sympathy, and bitter indignation. 
(2) Argument, sarcasm, personalities. (3) As either 



3 6 Book of Job. 

not new or not true. That God was great, Job was as 
well aware as they ; in sa} r ing that God prospered the 
good and punished the wicked, they described what 
ought to be, not what really was. (4) In turning from 
them to God (God as He would some day be). 

9. Job's Long Monologue (xxvii-xxxi). (1) With what 
introduced ? (2) In what respects does it present great difficul- 
ties ? (3) Theme of " stately lyric " it embodies ? 

(1) Picture by Job himself of God' s greatness . (2) (a) 
As to sequence of thought, {b) from apparent opposition 
to Job's previous and subsequent sentiments (CB 186, cf. 
I 9°)- (3) Wisdom. 

10. Elihu. (i) Who was Elihuf (2) Reason for taking 
part in discussion ? (3) Prevailing view of modern scholars re- 
garding these speeches? (4) Why considered that this not 
portion of original work ? 

(l) Youthful bystander. (2) Shocked to hear Job 
charge God with injustice, and stirred up against Friends 
for lack of success in convincing Job. (3) That were 
put in at later date. (4) (a) Elihu not named in Prologue 
or Epilogue, (b) no notice of him by Job, (c) language 
betrays later origin, (d) thought to break connection. 

11. Epilogue. Its subject? 

Restoration of Job's prosperity. 

12. Age and Authorship. (1) Earliest probable time of 
composition, and why ? (2) Why later period (e.g. not earlier 
than 7th century .b.c) more likely? (3) Widely separated 
times to which ascribed? (4) In what age, however, scene 
laid ? Reasons for statement ? 

(i) (a) Time of Solomon, (b) Strong disposition then 
showed itself to discuss such questions as those of this 
book. (2) Because was then that generally accepted 



Proverbs. 37 

views called in question. To do this is purpose of book 
of Job (CB lxiii.). (3) From days of Patriarchs down to 
post-Exilic times. (4) Patriarchal. Such the coloring of 
book ; its names of God and its description of life and re- 
ligion of Job's day belong to Patriarchal period (CB lv. f.). 

On Job see, Drama in Semitic Liter, BW v. 16 ff. ; Problem of Suffer- 
ing in O. T., vii., 255 ff., 325 ff. ; O. T. Wisdom, x., 183 ff. E T v., 505 

ff.,K(5)ii-, 377 ff-, (i)ii-, H7 ff. 

PROVERBS. 

I. (a) Of what do first nine chapters consist ? (b) Fine pas- 
sage in this division of book? 2. (a) Describe next division, (b) 
Of what each verse composed ? 3. How does third division 
(Chaps, xxii. 17-xxiv. 22) differ in character from previous one ? 

4. In what relation do two divisions of book stand to two others ? 

5. Striking peculiarity of division (Chap, xxx) containing 
' 'words of Agar" ? 6. Another collection bearing name of a 
person ? 7. Of what the last division made up ? 8. Indication 
that many of the proverbs had long been in oral circulation ? 
9. Besides the Proverbs, what other portions of Old Testament 
included in Wisdom literature? 10. Show (a) prominence of 
the Wise; (b) that not peculiar to Jews. II. (a) Important 
feature of other Old Testament books that is absent from 
Wisdom literature ? (b) With what class in Middle Ages may 
the Wise be compared? 12. How Wisdom personified? 13. 
In what way might spirit of the ' ' Wise ' ' in Book of Proverbs be 
described? 14. How charge to be met that material well-bei?ig 
usually held out as motive in Proverbs f 15. As regards 
authorship, what supposition probable ? 

I. (a) Of " praise of Wisdom " (LOT 370 f.). Verse 
1 not title to book, but introduction to exhortations 
following ; also points forward to collection beginning at 



38 Ecclesiastes. 

Chap, x., and expresses worth of these proverbs. Up to 
that chapter, proverbs are only here and there (LOT 
382 f. ) (b) Personification of Wisdom (Chaps, viii.-ix. 6). 
LOT 372. 2. (a) Has title "Proverbs of Solomon." 
Consists (x.-xxii. 16) of proverbs in strict sense (LOT 
372 f.). (b) Single proverbs in two lines. 3. Rather a 
collection of maxims with proverbs intermixed than of 
individual proverbs (LOT 375). 4. Of Appendix: (1) 
" Words of wise," and "these also are sayings of the 
wise." (2) "Proverbs of Solomon," and "Proverbs of 
Solomon which the men oiHezekiah King of Judah copied 
out" (LOT 376). 5- Conspicuous manner in which number 
four occurs (LOT 378). 6. " Words of Lemuel, a king ; 
the oracle which his mother taught him" (xxxi. 1-9). 
LOT 379. 7. Description of virtuous woman (xxxi. 10- 
31) ; verses arranged alphabetically. 8. Proverbs agree- 
ing in one member but differing in others. (BB 173). 9. 
Ecclesiastes, Job, and some Psalms (37, 49, 73), BB 174. 
10. (a) Old Testament references suggest that were rather 
prominent class in Israel (LOT 368 f.). {b\ The East and 
Egypt named as home of some. II. (a) Reference to 
peculiar features of Jewish nation or religion (LOT 
369; BB 174 f). (b) Humanists of Israel. 12. As 
"master workman" assisting God in Creation, and as 
directing affairs of men (LOT 370, cf. 372). 13 Good- 
natured, sympathetic, and appreciative (BB 177). 14. 
Material blessings to the Jews a sign of Divine favor (BB 
179 f. ) 15. That there is a nucleus the work of Solomon ; 
but that in general the book a collection from many 
centuries (BB 183). LOT 383. 

See E (3) viii. 193 ff., (4) i. 452 ff. ; BW i. 365 ff- 

ECCLESIASTES. 

I. Character. (1) Word that expresses character of whole 
book ? (2) Show how applies to Hebrew title (Qoheleth) (3) 
Various views as to nature of work? (4) An instance of 
author's cynicism f (5) Singular estimate of book by a modern 
commentator ? 



Ecclesiastes. 39 

(i) Book an enigma in many ways; even as to very 
purpose (LE 3 f. [6] ), (2) Word does not occur else- 
where in this form. Root-idea that of "gathering," 
always with reference to persons ; but not certain how 
root-idea modified in present instance. Then again, form 
is feminine ; how to explain this, another difficulty. 
Generally supposed title means ' ' one who convenes an 
assembly. " " Preacher ' ' misleading ; ' ' Ecclesiastes, ' ' 
though in some respects a good Greek equivalent for the 
Hebrew, itself needs explanation (CB 15 ff., LE 40 [59] 
ff. , DB s. v. Eccles ). (3) (a) Satire on Eastern government, 
(b) colloquy between two or more voices refuting one 
another, \c) soliloquy representing contradictory senti- 
ments, (d ) collection of many sayings with scarcely any 
method (LE 5 [7]). (4) Qoheleth" s depreciation of women : 
"One man among a thousand have I found; but a 
woman among all those have I not found " (vii. 28). 
(5) That instead of being the most melancholy book in 
Canon it is one of the most consolatory and inspiriting 
(BE 15). 

2. Design. (1) Some views regarding aim of book? (2) 
Explanation of marked difference of opinion ? (3) Two oppo- 
site tendencies in interpretation ? (4) Illustration of extent to 
which writers have read their own fancies into Ecclesiastes ? 
(5) General drift of book? (6) Passage from feremiah seem- 
ingly throwing light on meaning here ? (7) What according 
to many must be added to this account of the teaching ? (8) 
Key-note of book ? 

(i) (a) To be record of Solomon' 's penitence, (&) to 
teach future life and judgment, (c) to recommend ascetic 
life, (d) to advocate (according to some) scepticism; 
according to others, utter indifference, or Epicureanism, 
or pessimism (LE 4 [6] f.). (2) By selecting some and 
ignoring others among contradictory sentiments, it is 
easy to make book fit in with various theories. For 
illustrations of how meaning of author has been at times 
explained away, cf. LE 32 [44] ff. (3) Depreciating book 



4-o Ecclesiastes. 

on one hand, and exalting it on other by making it, 
e.g., speak almost language of New Testament. (4) 
A physician (a.d. 1666) tried to show that Solomon 
familiar with modern discoveries of anatomy and with 
circulation of blood. But "it pleased the I+ord that this 
knowledge should, with the possessor of it, sink into 
dust and darkness, where it lay buried for the space of 
twenty-five hundred years at the least" (C. 156). (5) 
That life in every way unsatisfactory ; best thing possible 
to enjoy with moderation such pleasures as God puts 
within our reach (LOT 441). (6) Jer. xxii. 15 : "Did 
not thy father eat and drink and do judgment and justice 
and then it was well with him?" (CB 123). (7) The 
looking forward to judgment to come. (8) " Vanity of 
vanities, all is vanity." Occurs no less than 39 times 
(CB 103). 

3. Author, (i) Reasons for supposing him to have been 
Solo?no?i? (2) Instance showing recognized incapacity of tra- 
dition to determine such a point? (3) Reasons for regarding 
book not by Solomon, but author as merely personating that 
king? (4) What to be said to charge oi forgery, then? (5) 
Approximate date ? 

(1) {a) Qoheleth expressly identified ( i. 1) with "son 
of David, king in Jerusalem . ' ' Only person answering to 
this is Solomon, (b) Both Jewish and Christian tradition 
accepted Solomonic authorship (CB 196°.; cf. C 244). 
(2) Tradition affirmed Book of Wisdom to be inspired 
work of Solomon, yet not now believed to be so (cf. C 
254 f. ). (3) (a) Writer speaks of Solomon as belonging 
to past (i. 12): "I was king over Jerusalem." But 
Solomon king to the last. Probably to explain this 
difficulty that legend of Solomon's dethronement by 
demons arose (BE 15 f., C. 245 f., L,E 21 [27]). (b) 
Condition of things described does not suit Solomon's 
day (LE 24 [30] ff.) (e) But if things were in his time 
such as here described, was for him to put a stop to these 
wrongs rather than lament them . {d ) Vitiated language. 



Ecclesiastes. 4 1 

Dclitzsch : "If book of Ecclesiastes written in age of Solo- 
mon, there is no history of Hebrew language" (LE 22 
[28], CB 24). And Ginsburg : "We could as easily 
believe that Chaucer is the author of Rasselas as that 
Solomon wrote Koheleth " (C. 253, CB 24). (4) No 
more so than certain ancient books, e. g. some writings 
of Plato, or books of modern poets (LE 21 [27], CB 
20 f.). (5) Second or third century B.C. Perhaps 
very latest book of Old Testament Canon (LE 29 [41], 
CB 29 fT.). 

4. Inconsistencies. (1) Mention some instances where 
same thing is at one moment commended highly and the next 
disparaged. (2) How these contradictions to be accounted 
for? (3) Sometimes, writer had his darkness relieved, if only 
for a moment, by some thought of brightness ; illustrate. (4) 
In midst of all these conflicting feelings, what would seem to 
have kept him from utter scepticism ? 

(i) Speaking of (a) Wisdom, he says (ii. 15) : " As it 
happeneth to the fool, so will it happen even to me " ; 
and asks, ' ' Why was I then more wise ? ' ' On the 
other hand (vii. 11, 12), " Wisdom is as good as an in- 
heritance, yea, more excellent is it." And {b) of Life (ii. 
17) : "So I hated life" ; again (vii. 1), "the day of 
death [is better] than the day of one's birth." Yet so 
much better is life than death that (ix. 4) "a living dog 
is better than a dead lion." (c) In inculcating the fear 
of God, Qoheleth knows (viii. 12 f.) that " it shall be well 
with them that fear God, which fear before him ; but it 
shall not be well with the wicked." Nevertheless, he 
declares (ix. 2 ff.) : "All things come alike to all there : 
is one event to the righteous and to the wicked," " as is 
the good, so is the sinner. ' ' And ' ' the dead know not 
anything, neither have they any more reward " (cf. 
LE 112 [170]). {d) So again as regards his continually 
repeated counsel to make the most of the opportunities for 
happiness in life, he gives his readers to understand that, 
even if they do, it may not help matters ; for that (ix. 



4 2 Ecclesiastes. 

n) "the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the 
strong," bnt that "time and chance happeneth to them 
all." (<?) And in respect to a coming judgment, he bids 
the young man rejoice, indeed, in his youth, " but know 
thou," he adds (xi. 9), " that for all these things God 
will bring thee into judgment." (Cf. L,E 128 [193]). Yet 
the next moment we hear that men are no better off than 
the beasts. " Even one thing (iii. 19) befalleth them; 
as the one dieth, so dieth the other" ; "man hath no 
pre-eminence above the beasts" ; "all are of the dust, 
and all turn to dust again. Who knoweth the spirit of 
man," he inquires, "whether it goeth upward, and the 
spirit of the beast, whether it goeth downward to the 
earth?" (2) By changing moods of Author (cf. L,E 
94 [142]). (3) (a) Of the joy of sunshine (xi. 7) : 
" Truly the light is sweet, and a pleasant thing it is for 
the eyes to behold the sun." Or again (iii. 11) : " He 
hath made everything beautiful in its time." (b) Of 
the possibility that God will some day make a difference 
between good men and bad men (iii. 17) : "I said in 
mine heart, God shall judge the righteous and the 
wicked." (4) His fear of God (LE 100 [149] f). 

5. Analogies with Job. (i) Some resemblances between 
Qoheleth and Job? (2) Suggested analogy as to plan of work ? 

(i) In (a) charges brought against God's government 
of world, e. g. in passage already cited (ix. 2 ff. ) : 
"All things come alike to all," &c. ; (b). the short- 
lived feeling that a time would come when God would 
do away with the seeming injustice of His rule on 
earth. (2) That just as writer of Job used debates in that 
book as a means of discussing the problem of the work, 
so here autobiographical sketch of Solomon serves a similar 
purpose (DB i. 637, b). 

6. Closing Chapters, (i) In the picture of man's decay 
and death (xii.), what the two chief lines of interpretation? 
(2) " For all these things God will bring thee into judgment " 
(xi. 9, cf. xii. 14) ; to what question is there no perfectly 



Ecclesiastes. 43 

clear answer? (3) And what must be said regarding the 
spirit's " return unto God who gave it " ? (4) Fitness of these 
chapters as a Lesson on last Sunday of Christian year ? 

(i) That death represented as storm coming on ; or 
that we have description of physical effects of old age and 
death (CB 213). (2) What and where this judgment is 
to be. The words are "hanging, as it were, in the sky 
— vague, undefined, unexplained, yet not to be conjured 
away or treated as of little moment" (LE 128 [193]). 
Reason why by some not taken in natural sense is 
because are thought out of harmony with general tone 
of book. Many feel this not to be decisive. (3) "To 
him it will return. More he says not. . . . We 
must not press his words too far. As just now, he spoke 
of judgment, but gave us no picture of the sheep on the 
right hand, the goats on the left, so here he has no more 
to say, no clear and dogmatic assertion of a conscious 
and separate future life" (EE 131 [196]). (4) If the 
final portion of the very latest of Old Testament books, 
"they represent the sigh, so to speak, for more light, 
the sense of weariness and dejection that falls sometimes 
upon the troubled human spirit as the night becomes 
more intense before the first glimmering of dawn" 
(LE 123 [187]). 

7. Epilogue. (1) Where supposed to begin ? (2) Obvious 
change in form ? (3) Writer ? (4) On view that by later hand, 
purpose of Epilogue ? 

(i) By some at xii. 8 ; by others at xii. 9. (2) 
Author now spoken of in third person. (3) Many think 
• not by author of book. (4) To explain true meaning 
of book (CB 225 ; EE 131 [196] ). 

8. Presence in Canon. In connection with disputes among 
Jews as to fitness of book to be in Canon, what opinion gener- 
ally held ? 



44 Song of Solomon. 

That they were after it was already in Canon. Ac- 
cording to Jewish tradition, canonically discussed and 
ratified at Council oi famnia (a.d. 90 and 118.) COT 
138 ; cf. 195 ; CB 27 f. 

9. Value. Point out some ways in which fitness of book 
to be in Holy Scripture may be seen. 

(i) Was specially fitted to speak to men of writer's 
own age (BB 191 f. ). (2) Appeals ever to one of soul's 
moods. " There is a mood of melancholy and sadness 
to which in one form or other the human soul is liable ; 
and this has found its most complete expression in Ec- 
clesiastes" (LOT 444 ; cf. LE 39 [52] ). (3) For all 
the sense of dissatisfaction and gloom that pervades 
book, writer cannot give up fear of God. And though, 
as some think, it be in no clear, unmistakable language 
that the world to come is made mention of, yet it is much, 
under the circumstances, that it should appear at all. 
That one should see the misery of existence as only the 
pessimist can see it ; that the writer could be brought by 
his own stern logic to a point where it is but an easy 
step to Atheism, and yet not only not take this step but 
feel no slightest impulse to take it, may well, says Cor- 
nill, be regarded as a notable triumph for Old Testament 
piety. No more than a postulate Qoheletti s faith may 
have been, yet it was just as much a part of his own 
mind as misery and disappointment were part of the life 
around him. He could not by its help, indeed, explain 
the mysteries that encompassed him ; he simply fell back 
upon this the faith of his childhood {Einleit. S. 248). (4) 
If for us Christians it served no other end, the book 
would at least be as a dark back ground for our faith 
(IvEioS [165] f.). 
Course of Thought, BW iv. 326 ff., cf. i. 453 ff. Was Koheleth a 
Sceptic? E(5) ix. 389 ff. 

SONG OF SOLOMON. 

In Hebrew, title is Song- of Songs (as also in R. V.). " Canticles," from 
Vulgate {Canticum Canticoruni). 



Song of Solomon. 45 

1. Author, (i) Some grounds for not considering Solomon 

the Author ? (2) Date suggested by many, and why ? 

(i) (a) Improbable that fine eulogy of Love near end 
is by one who (1 Kings xi. 3) had 700 wives and 300 
concubines (ASS 11). {b) No evidence, either in history 
or this book, of Solomon's reformation of character (ASS 
7). (e) "Shepherd" theory thought to fit poem so 
much better. (2) Tenth century B.C. Because of way in 
which Tirzah and Jerusalem spoken of, Tirzah having 
been capital of northern kingdom at this time (LOT 
423). Also general language and style supposed to in- 
dicate origin in flourishing age of literature. On other 
hand, from certain peculiarities of language post-Exilic 
date has been inferred (cf. BB 196). 

2. Character. (1) Two opposite conceptions as to literary 

for??i ? (2) Reasons for accepting unity of poem ? 

(i) That it is a collection of independent love-songs, 
(d) a continuous poem. (2) (a) Has form of dialogue, for 
most part with same characters, (b) one and same fe?nale 
figure appears throughout {E?icycl. Britann., s. v. Can- 
ticles). 

Most obscure book in whole Bible. Has been variously explained 
(among other views) as setting forth love of Jehovah for Israel ; as giving 
history from Exodus to the coming of the Messiah ; as referring to union 
of Soul with Body ; as conversation of Solomon with Wisdom ; as pro- 
phecy of Church from the Crucifixion tilt after the Reformation ; as 
intended to glorify the Virgin Mary (HI 32 f. ; GSS 101 f.). 

3. Interpretation. (1) Three schools of interpreters ? (2) 
Which the earliest known of the three ? (3) First certain ap- 
pearance of Allegorical interpretation of the Song ? (4) In 
what way this method of interpretation long used by Jews ? 
(5) How does Typical method differ from Allegorical? (6) 
Different views regarding the Shulamite f (7) Objections to 
Allegorical and Typical interpretations ? (8) Yet with what 
qualification ? (9) Besides understanding poem in natural 



4 6 Song of Solomon. 

sense alone, in what other point does modern view differ from 
traditional ? (10) Grounds for adopting " Shepherd " theory ? 
(il) What, however, to be noted? (12) One source of diffi- 
culty in interpreting poem ? 

(i) Those taking the poem as {a) intended purely in 
natural sense, Kb) allegorical, (c) typical. (2) Allegori- 
cal ; Jewish interpretation of love of Jehovah to Israel 
being modified by early Christian Church to adapt to 
Christianity. Some, however, have supposed love in- 
tended to be between Christ and the individual soul (BB 
J 93)- (3) I n writings of Origen (a.d. 185-284). Wright, 
Introd. to O. T., p. 171. (4) In poetical paraphrases. 
during Middle Ages, to give consolation to dispersed and 
suffering Jews (GSS 38 ff. ). (5) In latter, Solomon and 
Shulamite mere figiwes standing for something higher ; 
in former, relation of love between Solomon and Shula- 
mite really existed, but only object in describing it is to 
typify spiritual relations (BB 194). (6) (a) That she was 
Pharaoh's daughter, wife of Solomon, (b) a 3'oung wo- 
man of Galilee. (7) {a) No evidence to favor these 
methods (ASS 49); (b) contrary to usual rule that alle- 
gories indicated as such (GSS 119 f.), (c) sense complete 
in itself, (d) Solomon not fitted to represent Christ (GSS 
122). (8) That not necessarily objectionable, provided 
it be understood that these meanings not intended by 
writer (LI 405 f. But cf. ASS 51 f.). (9) In supposing 
two lovers, i. e. , a shepherd youth, in addition to Solomon. 
(10) [a) Not to be supposed that Solomon would be repre- 
sented as peasant, without reason given, (b) difference in 
tone between manner of King' 's address to Shula??iite and 
that of supposed shepherd, (c) so with replies of Shula- 
mite to them both, (d) separation (on theory of one 
lover only) on wedding-day improbable, (e) "Shep- 
herd ' ' theory brings catastrophe at end, ' ' Solomon ' ' 
theory at middle, thus depriving of motive the second 
half of book (ASS 76°.). (il) That modern view by no 
means claims to be full}' established. It is only that it 
appears much better than anj^ of older theories. In any 
case, good deal has to be assumed (LOT 411). (12) That 



Jeremiah. 47 

different parts not marked by names of different charac- 
ters. Some help, however, in change from masculine to 
feminine, singular to plural, and vice versa. 
The shepherd was regarded as the Shulamite's accepted lover by Ibn 
Ezra in 12th century, and by another Jewish writer in the 14th (GSS 46, 
56). The first to adopt modern view as to design of book was a Jewish 
poet in first quarter of present century (ibid. p. 59). 

4. Analysis. Story of poem on modern view ? 

(LOT 410 f.) : Beautiful Shulamite maiden surprised 
by King and retinue on royal progress, and brought to 
his palace in Jerusalem. There King tries to win her 
heart and persuade her to live at court. But she is al- 
ready pledged to a young shepherd, and the King's love 
and flattery cannot move her. At last, she is allowed to 
return home, where, at close of poem, the lovers appear 
together and extol the worth of genuine love as com- 
pared with that which money and rank can buy. 

5. Purpose. (1) How differs on old and new view respec- 
tively ? (2) A lesser purpose which, it has been suggested, 
book may have been intended to serve ? 

(i) (a) To show triumph of love over polygamy, (b) 
to exhibit fidelity of true love (LI 211 f.). (2) Conse- 
cration of love of nature (LI 212 ; cf. LE 12 [15], Stanley, 
JC, ii. 241, LOT 420 f.). 

See, Study of Form and Contents of S.S., BW ii. 247-258. Reference 
to Budde's view that S.S. is collection of folk-songs to be used at Hebrew 
wedding festivities, ET v. 340 ff., cf. BW v. 208 ff. Paraphrase of S., 
ET vii. 105 ff., 170 ff. 

JEREMIAH. 
I. Relation, in time, of Jeremiah to Isaiah f 2. What 
known of Jeremiah's birthplace and family ? 3. National 
policy opposed by him ? Account of this policy. 4. Trace 
connection between history of Egypt and Judah from time of 
Manasseh to destruction of Jerusalem. 5. Subsequent history 



48 Jeremiah. 

of Jeremiah ? 6. In whose reign did his prophetical activity 
begin ? 7. Extent to which religious reform carried ? 8. As 
last resort, what counsel given by prophet ? 9. Treatment of 
Jeremiah at hands of his people ? 10. Changed estimate of his 
writings subsequently? II. How did his prophecies come to 
be written ? 12. Group among his prophecies similar to some 
in Isaiah and Ezekiel f 13. Feature almost absent from prophe- 
cies of Jeremiah ? 14. By what conception does Jeremiah sur- 
pass in spirituality every other prophet ? 15. Chief thought 
presented by prophet ? 16. Features rendering book less inter- 
esting than writings of other prophets ? 17. From what source 
chap. 52 derived ? 18. Two ways in which chronological 
order disturbed ? 19. As to present arrangement, what view 
improbable ? 20. Principal differences between Hebrew text 
and LXX ? 

I. Born shortly before death of latter (BB 217). 2. 
In Anathoth, a little north of Jerusalem. Of priestly 
family. (LOT 232.) 3. Of courting friendship of 
Egypt. Egypt had risen again into power and become 
rival of Assyria (BB 218). 4. In Manasseh's time 
Egypt once more a great power, and disposition began 
in Judah which Jeremiah discouraged. In opposing 
King of Egypt, Josiah lost his life at Megiddo. Four 
years after, Nebuchadnezzar defeats Egyptians at Carche- 
mish, and Jehoiakim, son of Josiah, becomes subject to 
Babylon. Rebels, and Jerusalem falls, and its king is 
slain. His son Jehoiachin {Jeconiah, Coniah) with 
flower of land carried to Babylon, Zedekiah {Mattaniah) 
being permitted to reign over remnant. Zedekiah seeks 
alliance with Egypt, whereupon Chaldeans capture Jeru- 
salem, Temple is destroyed, king with other captives 
taken to Babylon, and Gedaliah made Governor of Judah. 
5. Carried to Egypt by murderers of Gedaliah. Tradi- 
tion of his death by stoning is of little worth (BB 219 ; 
CC 54, a [143]). 6. In 13th year of Josiah (BB 221). 7. 



Lamentations. 49 

Open idolatry abandoned, outward regard for religion 
maintained. 8. To submit to Chaldeans. 9. His writ- 
ings publicly burned, himself thrust into the stocks, and 
imprisoned (BB 224). 10. Restored Jews greatly influ- 
enced by his writings. In days of Christ was expected 
Jeremiah would come to prepare way for Messiah. II. 
Prophet commanded by Jehovah to write in roll all he 
had spoken. This dictated to Baruch. Next 3^ear roll 
read before people. Read also before Jehoiakim by 
Jehoiakim's order. King in anger cuts up roll and 
casts it into fire. Second roll prepared with additions 
(LOT 234). This probably nucleus of our present book 
(CC /. c). 12. Prophecies concerning foreign nations 
(xlvi-li). Among them a long one against Babylon. 
Cyrus referred to. Thought by some not to be by Jere- 
miah (LOT 250 ff.). 13. Messianic prophecy (BB 225). 

14. Of the New Covenant (xxxi. 31-34). LOT 257. 

15. Purely ethical nature of Jehovah and inwardness of 
relation to minds of His servants. What needed by 
people, not reform but regeneratio?i (CC 54, b [144]). 

16. Sameness of language and of stor}^. With perhaps 
exception of Ezekiel, less studied than any book of Old 
Testament (BB 227). 17. Taken by compiler of Jere- 
miah from 2 Kings xxiv. 18-xxv. 30, historical account 
of capture of Jerusalem by Chaldeans (LOT 252). 18. 
Some narrative sections disjoined from discourses to 
which refer ; some passages brought together on account 
of common subject, though of different dates (CC 54, b 
\ 144]). 19. That prophecies placed in present order by 
Jeremiah or even by Baruch (LOT 254). 20. Groups 
of prophecies on foreign nations differently arranged. 
Nearly 3000 words in Hebrew text left out in LXX 
(BB 228). 

On Jeremiah, see E (5) i. 66 ff. {Stalker) : (4) iv. 241 ff. ; Short Papers 
on, B (1) vii. 241 ff., 358 ff, 453 ff, viii. 59 ff., 230 ff, xi. 65 ff. 

LAMENTATIONS. 

I. Of what does book consist ? 2. Common characteristics 

of three of these Elegies ? 3. General subject of all five ? 4. 

4 



50 Ezekiel. 

How does subject of third differ from all rest ? 5. As to Au- 
thorship, difference between LXX and Hebrew text ? 6. State 
case regarding authorship. 7. If not by Jeremiah, by whom ? 

I. Five Elegies. 2. Each begins with word " How " 
and is alphabetical; i. e., every verse, half- verse, or 
small group of verses, begins with letter of alphabet. 
But there are slight irregularities in this respect. 3. 
Jerusalem after capture \>x Chaldeans. 4. In being 
more personal : " I am the man that hath seen affliction, ' ' 
etc. 5. LXX especially ascribes book to Jeremiah; his 
name omitted in Hebrew text. LXX : "It came to 
pass, after Israel was taken captive and Jerusalem made 
desolate, that Jeremiah sat weeping, and lamented this 
lamentation over Jerusalem." Jewish and Christian 
writers ascribe to Jeremiah. 6. On whole, balance of 
internal evidence against Jeremiah's authorship. 7. A 
contemporary. 
See K (4) v. 65 ff. {Stalker). 

EZEKIEL. 
I. Where did Ezekiel prophesy ? 2. Position in life ? 3. 
When prophetic call received ? 4. Prophetical contempora- 
ries ? 5. Relation between Ezekiel and fellow-exiles ? 6. Sub- 
jects of the three sections of book ? 7. As to unity of book ? 
8. How does first section open ? 9. In prophecies on foreign 
nations how is Ezekiel' s point of view unlike that of Amos, 
Isaiah, or Jeremiah f 10. In prophecy of restoration of Israel 
what striking symbolism used by prophet? II. Character of 
Ezekiel' s vision and description of restored Temple f 12. Two 
important points in connection with this prophecy ? 13. Fea- 
tures omitted 'from Ezekiel' s description of Temple service ? 14. 
New Junctionary named? 15. As respects Temple, what dif- 
ference comes out between Ezekiel and prophets generally ? 
16. Aim of Ezekiel' s entire system of regulations for Temple ? 



Ezekiel. 51 

17. Similarity between vision of Ezekiel and that in last chap- 
ter of Revelation f 18. As to nature of his prophesying, con- 
trast between Ezekiel and most of the prophets ? 19. Plan of 
work contrasted with that of writings of Isaiah and Jeremiah f 
20. As to method of teaching, three things in particular char- 
acteristic of book ? 21. What may be supposed regarding 
nature of symbolical actions ? 

I. In land of captivity (BB 233). 2. Priest. 3. 
Fifth year (b.c. 592) of Jehoiachirt 's captivity. 4. Jere- 
miah and Daniel. 5. Of antagonism. Ezekiel did not 
speak openly among them ; addressed only those who 
visited him in his house. Yet upon Exiles it was that 
he fixed his hopes for future. Zedekiah and Jews at Je- 
rusalem he gave up (EOT 261). 6. (a) Approaching 
fall of Jerusalem, (b) prophecies on foreign nations, (c) 
Israel's future restoration. 7. From first to last, bears 
stamp of one mind. 8. With vision of majesty of Je- 
hovah : Four Cherubim appear from out of storm-cloud ; 
and a chariot. Supported on heads of Cherubim, a 
firmament, and on firmament a throne with Divine Form 
upon it (LOT 262). 9. Ezekiel brings out fact that fall 
of Jerusalem not purely a triumph for heathen. Similar 
fate will befall them (EOT 268). 10. Vision of Valley 
of dry bones (EOT 273). II. (chapters xl.-xlviii.). 
Most obscure of all his prophecies (BB 238). 12. {a) 
Temple not restored on lines of this vision, but in main 
after Solomon' s Temple ; {b) physical impossibility of car- 
rying out prophet's details. Natural boundaries pre- 
scribed, i. e., between Sea and Jordan, several miles too 
narrow to fill out assignment for Temple and Priests and 
Eevites. 13. Ark of Covenant, High Priest, Pentecost, 
and Day of Atonement. (BB 239). 14. The "Prince," 
whose duty was to provide sacrifices. 15. Greater im- 
portance attached to ceremonial observances of religion 
(EOT 274). 16. To secure sanctity of Temple and holi- 
ness of people. Ideal element evidently present in Eze- 
kiel's account. 17. Eiving waters (xlvii.) flowing from 
under altar and into Dead Sea, making latter sweet (BB 



52 Daniel. 

239). 18. Theirs spontaneous ; his often the result of 
reflection (LOT 278). 19. Methodically arranged, seem- 
ingly by prophet's own hand. 20. Symbolical figures, 
symbolical actions, visions (CBxxv. ). 21. Were, at any 
rate some of them, imagined merely ; e. g. (iv. 5), lying 
on his side immovable for 190 days (ibid. xxix.). 
On Ezekiel, see BW v. 248 ff. 

DANIEL. 

I. In which division of Hebrew 7 Scriptures does Daniel stand ? 
2. Peculiarity as to language f 3. Subjects of the two parts' of 
book ? 4. Describe more fully former half. 5. Account of 
colossal image in Nebuchadnezzar's dream? 6. Traditional 
view regarding empires intended? 7. What that of many 
modern interpreters ? 8. Describe Nebuchadnezzar's dream of 
the mighty tree, and its interpretation. 9. Daniel's Vision of 
the Four Beasts'? 10. Vision generally supposed to refer to 
Antiochus Epiphanes ? II. Period represented \>y Seventy Weeks 
and how commonly interpreted ? 12. General outline of vision 
of Daniel by the Hiddekelf 13. What supposed by many re- 
garding date of book? 14. (1) Three-fold evidence on which 
late authorship based? (2) Under first head, difficulty con- 
nected with Belshazzar f (3) Foreign elements in language ? (4) 
What noteworthy regarding Aramaic and Hebrew of Daniel ? (5) 
Doctrines taught in more developed form than elsewhere in 
Old Testament, and somewhat resembling literature of period 
much later than Daniel? 15. What suggested idea that book 
probably belongs to age of Antiochus Epiphanes ? 16. On 
supposition of this late authorship, how book to be explained ? 
17. Feature not excluded by modern view ? 18. What con- 
sidered Author's motive in narrative parts? 19. How does 



Daniel. 53 

book differ from earlier prophets in its view of history ? 20. 
As prophet, how does Daniel differ from other prophets ? 

I. Hagiographa. 2. Partly Hebrew, partly Ara?naic. 
3. (a) History of Daniel (i-vi.), (£) visions attributed to 
him (LOT 458). 4. Made up of several loosely joined 
sections, each a complete narrative in itself (BB 241). 
5. Head of gold, silver breast and arms, body brass, legs 
iron, feet iron and clay mixed. Stone ' ' cut out without 
hands ' ' suddenly falls, smites feet, which then break up, 
while stone becomes mountain filling whole earth ( LOT 
459). 6. (a) Chaldean, (b) Medo-Persian (Cyrus), {c) 
Macedonian, then Seleucidce (Antioch), and Ptolemies, (d) 
Ro?nan. Stone regarded as representing Kingdon of God. 

7. (a) Chaldean, (b) Media?i, (c) Persian, (d) Macedo?iian. 

8. Head towering to heaven, beasts and fowls sheltered 
by branches. Nebuchadnezzar hears command for its 
destruction. Tree symbolized King who was to be 
humbled and for seven years bereft of reason (LOT 460). 

9. Saw rising from Sea a lion with eagle's wings, a bear, 
leopard with four wings and four heads, and a fourth beast 
with iron teeth, destroying all things, and with ten 
horns. A little horn springs up and roots out three 
of others. Celestial assize held. Beast is slain, and one 
"like unto a son of man," i.e., in human form, comes 
with clouds of heaven into presence of the Almighty and 
receives from Him universal dominion (LOT 462). 10. 
Of he-goat from West meeting ram from East. In place 
of broken horn of goat, four other horns rose up. Out of 
one of these comes little horn, taken to mean A?itiochus 
Epiphanes. Angel Gabriel explains meaning to Daniel, 
though name of Antiochus does not appear. He-goat 
represents Greeks with Alexander ; four horns being 
four kingdoms into which at his death Macedonian 
empire divided (LOT 465). Antiochus ascended throne 
B.C. 176. II. (a) Time taken fully to atone for iniquity 
of people. Seventy years of Captivity being nearly up, 
Daniel implores God to look favorably upon His people. 
Gabriel explains that not 70 years, but 70 weeks of years 
required, (b) As prediction of death of Christ, and de- 
struction of Jerusalem by Titus. View labors under 



54 Daniel. 

serious difficulties. No unobjectionable interpretation 3-et 
furnished (IX)T 464 f. ). 12. Angel prevented hitherto by 
"prince" [guardian angel] of Persia, but being now 
assisted by Michael, "prince" of Jews, comes to Daniel 
and tells of long contest he (the angel) and Michael will 
have on behalf of Daniel. Then struggles are related 
of succeeding centuries. History of Antiochus most fully 
described of all. Death of Antiochus followed by resur- 
rection of Israel. Finally, advent of Messianic age an- 
nounced (LOT 466). 13. Not earlier than circ. B.C. 300, 
and written in Palestine. Probably composed under per- 
secution of Antiochus {circ. B.C. 168) LOT 467. 14. (1) 
■ («) Facts of historical nature, (b) language, (c) theology 
(LOT 467. 469, 477). (2) Is called King of Babylon and 
Nebuchadnezzar called his father. Last king of Babylon, 
Nabonidus ; no relation to Nebuchadnezzar (LOT 468). 
(3) Persian words very numerous. Also, are a few Greek 
(LOT 469^. (4) Aramaic is Western dialect, such as 
spoken in Palestine. Hebrew resembles that of age sub- 
sequent to A T ehemiah (LOT 471 ff.) (5) Doctrines of 
Messiah, Angels, Resurrection, Judgment of world. 
General atmosphere and tone of book not those of Kxile 
(LOT 477). 15. Culmination of interest in relations of 
Jews with Antiochus. 
Prophets generally encouraged people in hour of actual need. But Dan- 
iel shows no interest in contemporaries ; nor does he anticipate the Return ; 
looks to remote deliverance. After time of Antiochus, picture given is 
less distinct. If book by writer in time of Antiochus, all becomes clear 
(DOT 478). That work as we have it now is b} 7 one living in days of that 
ruler, is accepted by even moderate critics (ibid. 483). Cf. LI 215. 

16. By regarding author as offering consolation 
his age needed on account of persecutions that were 
arising. 17. Predictive element. 18. Not merely to 
describe events in Daniel's life, but to magnify God of 
Daniel (LOT 479). 19. Embraces much more. Is con- 
tinuous succession of empires. (LOT 480). 20. No 
special authority as prophet laid claim to. No " Thus 
saith the Lord " (LOT 481). 
Some Queries about Daniel, BW vi. 264. Recent discoveries and Book 
of Daniel, E (3) i. 217 ff., 431 ff., ii. 437 ff. 



Hosea. 55 

HOSEA. 

1. Contemporaries. Position of Hosea among contempo- 
raneous prophets ? 

Younger contemporary of Amos ; older, of Isaiah and 
Micah (DP 107). 

2. Hosea and Amos. (1) How has distinction between 
character of teaching of Amos and Hosea respectively been ex- 
pressed ? (2) Difference in regard to nature of prophetic call 
in two cases? (3) Another consideration tending to influence 
personal feelings of each ? 

(i) Former taught that " God is Justice" ; latter, 
" God is Love " (Cornill, Der Israel. Prophetismus, S. 48) ; 
former was ' ' prophet of Conscience ' ' ; latter, ' ' prophet 
of Repentance ' ' (BT i. 229). (2) With A?nos, came from 
without : ' ' The lion hath roared, who will not fear ? 
The Lord God hath spoken, who can but prophesy?" 
(Amos iii. 8). To Hosea, came in bitterness of own 
soul. (3) Both, prophets to Israel ; but former an out- 
sider, latter himself a subject of northern kingdom (PI 
154 £)■ 

3. Hosea's Marriage. (1) (a) Relation in which Jehovah 
described as standing to Israel? (b) What led to this treat- 
ment of subject? (c) View taken of Hosea' s marriage f (d) 
Other views ? (e) Explanation considered to justify opinion 
that Hosea married in ignorance of woman's real character? 
(f) Support idea of this ignorance receives from typical mean- 
ing of incident? (2) Difference between Semitic idea of union 
of god with a land and Hosea's of relation of Jehovah to Israel ? 
(3) What specially constituting Israel's unfaithfulness as spouse 
of Jehovah? (4) Before Jehovah's compassion could receive 
back Israel, what first needed? 



56 Hosea. 

(i) (a) Husband, {b) Hosea's own domestic experience. 
(c) That wife chosen in ignorance of true character (BT i. 
236 ff., DP 117 ff., PI 180 ff., E (4) in. 7Q f.)- (d) That 
whole story allegorical ; that is in all points to be taken 
literally. {e) That Hosea referred his knowledge after- 
wards acquired of God's purpose, back to time when 
that purpose entered upon its fulfilment, i. e., the day of 
betrothal (BT i. 238). (/) Hosea represents earliest 
relations of Israel to Jehovah as innocent. (2) Former 
physical ; latter moral. On former view, a god simply 
the great ancestor of his people (PI 168). Jehovah's 
relation by grace, not by nature ; He had adopted Israel 
. {ibid. 169). Further, bride not the land, but the people. 
Corn, wine, etc. were love-gifts from husband to wife : 
" She did not know that I gave her the corn, and the 
wine, and the oil," etc. {Hosea ii. 8). BT i. 243. (3) 
Her going after the Baalim, images nominally repre- 
senting Jehovah, but worshipped as heathen worshipped 
their deities {Hosea ii. 5, cf. 8, 12). BT i. 243 f. (4) 
Israel's discipline. This the Exile was to be (BT i. 

245 ff-). 

4. Two Parts of Book. (1) Contrast as to times described 

respectively in former and latter (larger) part ? (2) Character 

of second part? (3) Striking indication of deep moral decay 

in second period ? 

(i) (a) Prosperous reign of Jeroboam II. (b.c. 790), {b) 
disintegration of nation in following reigns. (2) Diffi- 
cult to interpret. Due in part to corrupt text, in part to 
emotional character. 

It is as if prophet "cannot think out things and reason out things. 
He sways like a pendulum from one extreme to another : now blazing 
indignation against the people's wickedness and blindness and madness, 
and the next moment lamenting over them like a mother over her only- 
son " (E (4) iii. 71). Text " one of most dilapidated in the Old Testa- 
ment, and in parts beyond possibility of repair " (BT i. 220). 

(3) That even priests and prophets corrupt. 
" L,et none find fault and none upbraid, for my people are but as their 
priestlings. O priest, thou hast stumbled to-day : and stumble to-night 
shall the prophet with thee " (emended text, iv. 4. BT i. 257). 



Joel. 57 

5. " Romance " of early history of Israel ? 

That Jehovah called puny race as chosen people, pass- 
ing over Assyria, Egypt, etc. 

"God's eyes, that passed unheeded the adult princes of the world, fell 
upon this little slave-boy, and He gave him a career : From Egypt I 
catted him to be my son " (BT i. 291). 

On Hosea, see BW v. 461 f., xii. 257 ff., E (1) ix. 241 ff. {A. B. Davidson) ; 
x. 422 ff. 

JOEL. 

I. Where probably did Joel prophesy? 2. How does case 
stand as to his belonging to priesthood f 3. And as to date of 
prophet ? 4. Condition of country ? 5. Part performed by 
prophet in emergency ? 6. Point noteworthy in his account of 
the plague ? 7. In what way announcement introduced of 
God's world-wide plan? 8. What represented as required by 
nation's consecration ? 9. Of what the outpouring of the 
Spirit the precursor? 10. As to Joel's prophecy, give view 
opposed to that presented in Answ. 5. 1 1. Three theories 
about the locusts ? 12. Wide range of dates assigned to 
prophecy? 13. Between what two dates does question practi- 
cally lie? 14. What probably the one sure inference as to 
date? 15. Two striking characteristics of Joel's style? 16. 
How has limitation of his religious range been exaggerated ? 

I. Written and published in Jerusalem (BB 260). 2. 
Can neither be proved nor disproved. 3. Nothing defi- 
nite known ; only matter of conjecture from book itself. 
4. Land laid waste by successive visitations of locusts. 
Worse experience of plague overhanging (BB 261). 5. 
First, declares that suffering due to judgment of God ; 
foretells worse things ; urges penitence. Then, people 
having repented, gives assurance of God's pity and 



58 Amos. 

grace ; and concludes with picture of setting up of God's 
kingdom on earth. 6. Vividness of description, both of 
what has been and what is to be. Luxurious suffer ; 
religion suffers, and agriculture. Time for priests to 
gather people for prayer. Locusts described in distance, 
near at hand, and when right upon the suffering land. 
7- Nation's temporal relief not enough. People have 
part in world scheme. To fulfil part, must be conse- 
crated to God (BB 262). 8. Inspiration of each indi- 
vidual. 9. Judgment of world. 10. That calamities all 
have reference to future. Possibly ; but idea not in har- 
mony with language. II. That to be taken (a) literally, 
(b) allegorically, (<r) apocalyptically, as in Revelation. 
On this view locusts regarded a's supernatural agencies 
belonging to last times. Literal interpretation the 
natural one, and mostly favored by modern scholars. 
For Allegorical sense, is claimed by advocates that de- 
scription suits human beings better (BB 263). 12. Five 
centuries (BB 265). 13. Circ. b.c. 860, beginning of 
reign of Joash ; and post-Kxilic period [circ. B.C. 445). 
14. That Joel either first or last among writing prophets. 
(BB 267). 15. Descriptive and oratorical skill. 16. 
Does emphasize ritual of penitence, }^et implies import- 
ance of reality. And temporal prosperity considered as 
basis of spiritual. Outpouring of Spirit confined, it may 
be, to Israel ; still, salvation based on spiritual character. 
Messianic future not so exalted as with some prophets ; 
yet there is progression in God's dealings with world. 

See (A. B. Davidson) E (3) vn. 198 ff. ; and (Elmslie) E (4) iii. 161 ff. ; 
viii. 208 ff. 

AMOS. 

I. The Prophets, (i) Semitic conception of Deity? (2) 
What the relation of a god to his tribe thought to involve ? (3) 
Consequent functions of prophet in primitive society ? (4) Es- 
sential idea of Old Testament prophet ? (5) Wherein did early 
prophets of Israel resemble other Semitic prophets, and wherein 
differ ? (6) Three groups of the Canonical prophets ? 



Amos. 59 

(i) Every tribe had a god and every god had a tribe 
(BT i. 14). (2) One involving concern for all practical in- 
terests of tribe. (3) Among other things, to give infor- 
mation, e. g., regarding whereabouts of lost property, or 
escaped criminals ; as to time for sowing crops, etc. , (ibid. 
15, (4) That he was a speaker for God (ibid. 12). (5) 
In similarity of methods ; in moral superiority (BT 17). 
(6) 1. Assyrian Period, 2. Chaldean, 3. Post-Exilic. 

Assyrian Period (b.c 760-700). To Israel: Amos. Hosea. To Judah: 
Isaiah, Micah. Chaldean Period (B.C. 640-570) : Nahum, Zephaniah, 
Habakkuk, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. Post- Exilic : Haggai, Zechariah, Ma- 
lachi. As to dates of Joel, Obadiah, and parts of Isaiah and Zechariah, 
opinions differ. Jonah is, as Jewish tradition puts it, "a book by itself," 
and Daniel is regarded as not among prophets in Canon (DP 19 ff.). 

2. Condition of Country. (1) How long interval between 
Elisha and Amos? (2) Contrast between state of country in 
time of two men respectively ? (3) Moral condition of Israel in 
day of Amos? (4) Religious? (5) As respects religion, into 
what was land fast falling ? 

(i) About 40 years. (2) In days of Elisha country 
harassed by enemies ; of Amos, exceptionally prosperous 
(BT 31 ff.) (3) Oppression of poor, luxury, perversion 
of justice, immorality (CB 99 f.). (4) Crowded temples, 
frequent pilgrimages, elaborate ceremonial, costly gifts ; 
but no care for righteousness (BT 39 f.). 

" It was not political blindness or religious indifference, but a profound 
and fanatical faith, that made Israel insensible to the danger so plainly 
looming on the horizon " (PI 132). 

(5) Heathenism (BT 157). 

3. Amos a Conspicuous Figure. (1) What makes Amos 
a striking figure among prophets ? (2) On what occasion his 
position marked by great impressiveness ? (3) Instance of way 
in which Amos preached God' s universal providence ? 



60 Amos. 

(i) First (unless possibly Joel) among writing pro- 
phets ; juncture of his appearance and startling character 
of Message (BT i. 73). (2) Of his presence at great 
religious festival at Bethel, to face, all alone, wealth and 
power and popular favor there arrayed against prophet 
of Jehovah (BT 107 f.) (3) Reference to Divine guid- 
ance in case of Ethiopians, Philzstmes, and Syrians. 

"Are ye not as the children of the Ethiopians unto me, O children of 
Israel ? saith the Lord. Have I not brought up Israel out of the land 
of Egypt and the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir" ? 
Israel indeed God's peculiar people, but only that they might be a holy 
nation. If they become a sinful people, and so God's judgment must 
needs fall upon them, then they are no dearer to Him than any other 
people (BT i. 189). 

4. Israel Warned. (1) Two things condemned by Amos 
in Jewish national life ? (2) Two-fold misapprehension at bot- 
tom of Israel's infatuation ? (3) Words of prophet in substance 
his answer to implied reasoning of people ? (4) In this connec- 
tion, of what hope of theirs does he expose the futility? (5) 
By what comparison does he describe thoughtlessness and lux- 
ury of the women f (6) Passage considered by many modern 
writers to be opposed to traditional view of Levitical legisla- 
tion? (7) In foretelling judgments upon nation, notable ex- 
pression used, suggested by one of common visitations ? (8) To 
which kingdom prophecy of Amos addressed ? (9) Nation that 
was to serve as Jehovah's instrument in punishing Israel ? (10) 
Profound influence of Assyria on prophecy? (il) Charge that 
has been brought against tone of Amos? (12) With what 
prophet contrasted in this respect? (13) How difference to be 
explained ? 

(i) Its civilization and its religion (BT 42 f.) (2) 
That God cared for Israel only among nations ; that 



Amos. 6 1 



righteousness not necessary part of His worship (CB 108). 
(3) ' ' You only have I known of all the families of the 
earth : therefore I will visit upon you all your iniquities ' ' 
(iii. 2). 

" It must have been a rude shock to the easy-going security of the 
Israelites to learn that just because they were Jehovah's people He in- 
tended to punish them " (DP 96). 

(4) From trusting to the Day of Jehovah. 

" Woe unto you that desire the day of the Lord ! Wherefore would 
ye have the day of the Lord? It is darkness and not light" (v. 18). 
What God required was justice and righteousness, not feasts and solemn 
assemblies (BT i. 169 f.j. 

(5) By comparing them with cattle (iv. 1.: " kine of 
Bashan"), "heavy, heedless animals, trampling in their 
anxiety for food upon every frail and lowly object in the 
way " (BT i. 148) (6) " Did you bring unto me sacri- 
fices and offerings in the wilderness forty years, O house 
of Israel ? " (v. 25). Not that there were no sacrifices in 
those times ; only, that ritual then but modification of 
that common to all Semites (BT 103 f. ) (7) ' ' I will 
send a famine in the land, not a famine of bread, nor a 
thirst for water, but of hearing the words of the L,ord ' ' 
(viii. n)BTi. 186. (8) Northern. (9) Assyria. (10) 
Appearance of Assyria strengthened faith in God's pur- 
pose of bringing unrighteousness into judgment; thought 
of immense power of Assyria being under Divine control 
added to sense of Jehovah's greatness ; elimination, 03- 
Assyria's resistless advance, of all tribal gods prepared 
way for acknowledgment of o?ie true God ; community 
of suffering led to feeling of oneness of men (BT 44, 51, 
54). (II) Austerity (CB no f.) (12) Hosea. (13) By 
difference in (a) circumstances of two men : Amos from 
desert; Hosea' s own troubles ; (b) nature of two men. 

5. Against Nations, (i) Unusual position of oracles for 
foreign nations ? Why ? (2) What condemned in these 
nations ? 



62 Jonah. 

(i) Before, not after prophecy against Israel herself. 
To show that if other nations bad, Israel worse (BT 121). 
(2) Inhumanity as such (BT i. 122 ; cf. 133). 

6. Epilogue, (i) Question disputed regarding Epilogue 

(ix. n-15) and few preceding verses? (2) Considerations as 

to non-fulfilme?it of these and similar prophecies ? 

(i) Whether by Amos or by another hand. In main, 
because of strong contrast offered by Epilogue s bright 
picture of future to whole tone of severity through rest 
of book. 

It is at least to be borne in mind that restored Israel is a very different 
Israel from Israel condemned by the prophet ; that prophets usually close 
with allusions to happy future ; and that they are poets, often moved 
by impulse rather than logic (CB 119 ff.; BT 181 f. ; 189 ff. ; 194 f.). 

(2) (a) Are conditional, (b) largely ideal, and (c) af- 
fected by limitations of Jewish religion (CB 226). 

7. Date. In whose reign did Amos prophesy ? Date ? 

Jeroboam II. About B.C. 750. 
On Amos, see E (3) v. 161 ff., vi. 161 ff. {A. B. Davidson). Prophecy 
in Israel, BW vii. 1 ff. ; Gen. facts regarding O. T. prophecy, vii. 124 ff. , 
199 ff. Prophecy before Conquest of Canaan, 273 ff., in United Kingdom, 
352 ff.; Ideal elements in prophecy, viii. 211 ff.; Essential elements, v. 
321 ff. Strophical Arrangement of Amos, xii., 81 ff., 179 ff., 251 ff, 333 ff. 

JONAH. 

1. Historical Interpretation. Reasons for ? 

{a) This the natural sense, (b) objections to historical 
interpretation regarded as due only to rejection of the 
miraculous, {c) method j ustified on ground that our L,ord's 
reference to book sanctions natural sense. 

2. Objections to this Method. (1) Strangeness of book, 
even apart from distinctly miraculous element ? (2) Objec- 
tions on score of omissions f (3) From silence of other parts 
of Scripture ? 



Jonah. 63 

(1) (a) Book as whole gives such impression, just as 
feeling produced, e. g. in Pilgrim's Progress that we are 
not dealing with real life. E (4) vi. 2 f. (b) Special 
features have same effect, e. g. sudden conversion of 
vast population ; and representation of king very differ- 
ent from what we should expect from his character as we 
know it from other sources (LOT 303). 

Though it is only right to bear in mind extreme susceptibility of 
Orientals to religious influences (MP 240. — Wright, Bibl. Ess. p. 67 f.). 

(2) Narrative silent as to many things we should have 
expected to find mentioned . 

Such as, (1) locality of Jonah's release from fish, (2) name of Assyrian 
king, (3) account of journey to Nineveh, (4) what were sins of Nineveh, 
(5) things referred to, indeed, but omitted from their natural place (BT 
ii. 499). 

(3) No allusions to remarkable conversion of Nineveh 
in writings of succeeding prophets. K (4) vi. 4. 

First mention of Jonah is in Tobit, about 450 years after Jonah. But 
Tobit says nothing about repentance of Nineveh {ibid.) No doubt, argu- 
ment from silence requires caution ; but evidence is cumulative. 

3. Misapprehensions. (1) As to charge that Historical 
Interpretation rejected only through dislike of miracle, what to 
be said? (2) How objection met that our Lord's language 
implies historic truth of Jonah narrative ? 

(i) (a) That, as matter of fact, Allegorical View ac- 
cepted by many who do not disbelieve in miracles, (b) 
that true question not at all whether these miracles 
could have happened, but only whether there is not 
more reason for understanding book allegorically than 
literally, (c) that it is felt these particular miracles are so 
unlike other miracles of Scripture that this dissimilarity 
is itself enough to suggest they are not to be taken as 
actual occurrences. 

Stories have been related of men swallowed by sharks and of their 
having been recovered alive (Wright, Bibl. Ess. 36 ff.). 



64 Jonah. 

(2) In two different ways, (a) By some is consid- 
ered that our Lord expresses no judgment at all as to 
character of story, but merely uses story as illustration 
(BT 507 ff. ; MP 234 f.). {b) By others, that our Lord 
in assuming our nature assumed also the limitations of 
the human mind ; in other words, that in matters not 
affecting His office of Divine Teacher His knowledge 
was knowledge of men of His day. (See LI 413 ff.). 

" All those points on which there may seem to be any collision between 
the language used by Christ and modern inquiry are not of the nature 
of direct affirmation or explicit teaching, and were in no way essential to 
His Messianic office " (ibid. 417). "Jesus Himself told us He was igno- 
rant of one thing, of the time, namely, of the day of judgment. There- 
fore ignorance for Him was a possibility. So the question is not, Could 
He be ignorant of anything ? but, To what did His ignorance extend ? " 
Plummer in E (4) iv. 10. " Let us abide by the fact that there is a re- 
markable silence in Scripture respecting the all but limitless knowledge 
which reverent minds often think it necessary to attribute to Jesus Christ. 
It would be rash to assert that He did not possess it : still more rash to 
assert that He could not have possessed it. But such evidence as has 
been granted to us seems to point to a limitation of His knowledge very 
much more considerable than many people are willing to admit" [ibid. 11). 
Again, "It is at least conceivable that Jesus so emptied Himself of 
the attributes of His Divinity as to be dependent for knowledge upon 
His earthly experience and the information He obtained from others. 
In that case He would know no more about the authorship of the Sacred 
writings than His Jewish instructors could tell Him, and He would share 
their ignorance as He shared their customs and climate " (ibid. 13). Speak- 
ing of the self-emptying of the Son of God, Canon Mason says, "Any 
attempt to minimise it and explain it away, seems to impair the com- 
pleteness of the Incarnation" (Faith of the Gospel, 154). See on this 
subject, TC 25 ff., and Swayne, Our Lord" s Knowledge as Man. 

4. Allegorical Interpretation. (1) Reasons for taking 
book as Allegorical ? (2) What regarded as confirmatory of 
allegorical view ? (3) Show analogy between Israel and Jo?iah. 
(4) Advantages of Allegorical interpretation? (5) How view 
qualified ? 



Jonah. 65 

(i) Didactic purpose appears from structure of book. 
What aids this purpose is mentioned, while information 
is withheld that might have been expected if history had 
been what author was writing (LOT 303). For example, 
story ends abruptly as soon as (on modern view) moral 
perfectly clear (BT ii. 499 f. ). (2) That nations of 
world spoken of by prophets as the sea or sea-monsters, 
and Exile as Israel's being swallowed up (BT ii. 503 f.) 

Is. xxvii. 1 : "In that day the Lord with His sore and great and strong 
sword shall punish leviathan the swift serpent, and leviathan the crooked 
serpent ; and he shall slay the dragon that is in the sea " (ibid. 504 n.). 
To the Jew, "the sea was a symbol of arrogance and futile defiance to 
the will of God. The Semites had filled it with turbulent monsters, 
snakes and dragons who wallowed like its own waves, ... or rose to 
wage war against the gods in heaven and the great lights which they had 
created." G. A. Smith tells of a survival of this idea which he wit- 
nessed in Palestine on the occasion of an eclipse of the moon. There 
was " a hideous din of drums," etc. for the purpose of frightening the 
great fish swallowing the moon, and to make him disgorge it. By these 
nature-myths the prophets illustrated God's dominion over the heathen 
conquerors of His people. Chiefly so, from the Exile onward. Jer. (Ii. 
34, 44) describes Exile as a swallowing of Israel by the king of Babylon > 
whom God compels to disgorge his victim : " Nebuchadrezzar the king 
of Babylon hath devoured me, he hath crushed me, ... he hath 
swallowed me up like a dragon." And Jehovah says, " I will do judg- 
ment upon Bel in Babylon, and I will bring forth out of his mouth that 
which he hath swallowed up." (BT 524 f.). 

(3) Israel like ¥ona/i, in that was to set forth God's 
truth to world. This task Israel would not perform, but 
was unfaithful to God, following its own ways. At 
length it was " swallowed up " by world power Babylon. 
Thereupon it sought the Lord, and was permitted to ob- 
tain release. Even then it remained ignorant of Divine 
purpose to bless all nations of the earth, if only they would 
turn to the Lord. (LOT 304, BT ii. 502 f.). (4) (a) 
Grotesqueness of book not so great when accepted as 
popular poetry as when understood literally (BT ii. 495 f., 
526). {b) makes work a prophetic sermon from first to 
last (ibid. 494). (5) By supposition that work has his- 
toric basis of fact (LOT 303). 



66 Jonah. 

5. Purpose of Book. What author's aim to teach ? 

Book not meant, as some suppose, to illustrate variety 
of truths (though may do so incidentally), but has one 
general design : to teach mission of Prophecy to Gentiles 
(BT ii. 500 f.). 

By Dean Stanley, Jonah styled " the first Apostle to the Gentiles." 
E (4) vi. 6. In this book, "the national wall of separation is broken 
down and the whole heathen world is thrown open as a mission-field 
for the messengers of Jehovah " {Orelli, in Straek and Zoeekler, Kgf. 
Comm., S. 287) ; cf. BT ii. 495. 

6. Prayer of Jonah. (1) Character as composition? (2) 
Form? (3) Two views regarding its place here? (4) A 
natural interpretation on Allegorical view ? 

(I) Consists almost wholly of passages parallel to 
others in Psalter (BT ii. 510). (2) Not petition for 
deliverance, but thanksgiving (LOT 304). Yet may be 
that Jonah regarded as already saved (BT ii. 512). (3) 
(a) That was part of original work, (b) that was inserted 
by later hand (ibid. 511, 527. Cf. LOT 304). (4) That 
is psalm of nation as a whole (BT ii. 527). 

7. Closing Passage. Its striking character ? 

Irony blended with pathetic representation of God's 
care for His creatures (iv. 10) : " Thou hast had pity for 
the gourd, . . . should not I have pity on Nineveh, 
that great city ; wherein are more than sixscore thou- 
sand persons that cannot discern between their right 
hand and their left hand; and also much cattle?" 
" God's pity for cattle is the last word of the unknown 
writer" E (4) vi. 16 f. 

8. Authorship and Date. (1) When have we mention of 
another prophecy of Jonah ? (2) Its subject? (3) On what 
grounds book supposed to have been written long after Jonah ? 

(i) Circ. B.C. 780, in beginning of reign of Jeroboam 
II. (LOT 300). (2) Jeroboam's success against Syrians. 

UtfC. 



General Questions. 67 

(3) From (a) language, (b) Psalm in Chapter 2. If had 
come ixom. JonalV s age, would, it is considered, have been 
more original, [c) general thought of book, which is re- 
garded as presupposing teaching of great prophets. 5th 
Century B.C. proposed as date (LOT 301. Cf. BT 497 f.). 

See E (4) vi. iff. (Dale) ; BE 34-98. 

GENERAL QUESTIONS. 
I. Function of the Higher Criticism, and with what the name 
contrasted ? 2. Why no reproach to say the Bible not inerrant f 
3. Church definition of Inspiration? 4. Fundamental differ- 
ence between old method and modern of determining authorship 
of Old Testament books ? 5. Show superiority, broadly consid- 
ered, of the new over the old ? 6. (a) In support of Traditional 
view, the New Testament is appealed to ? How? (Jb) Two-fold 
answer ? 7. An obviously strong presumption in favor of modern 
view, speaking generally ? 8. An ancient designation of the 
Bible disposes of some objections to modern conception of 
special books, or parts of books ; what this name ? 9. What 
unfair course frequently followed by defenders of traditional 
view ? A natural inference ? 10. Some principal founders of 
modern biblical criticism have been disbelievers in supernatural 
religion ; ought not this to have put Christian scholars on their 
guard? II. How do Christians, without intending it, often 
imitate these disbelievers ? 12. Why to have been expected 
that ground should first have been broken by men out of 
sympathy with ideas predominant in Christian world ? 13. Is 
it not unlikely that opponents of Christianity should in some 
respects arrive at truer views of Scripture than earnest Chris- 
tians ? 14. Does, or does not, the fact that for so many centu- 
ries the Christian Church has held certain views regarding the 



68 General Questions. 

Old Testament prove truth of these views? Why? 15. What 
would 3'ou say as to our Lord's promise to be with His Church ? 
16. And what as to seeming strangeness of new ideas about 
Bible being so modern? 17. The real question at issue re- 
garding the Bible as revelation ? 18. Respecting preconceived 
ideas as to form of revelation, what caution to be borne in 
mind? 

1. To investigate conte?its of Sacred Writings, as dis- 
tinguished from the text. Investigation of text consti- 
tutes Textual Criticism. 

The Higher Criticism seeks to determine such points, e. g. as author- 
ship, character of composition (e. g. whether literal history, or allegory, or 
poetry), and other matters which are recognised to fall within the province 
of Criticism in case of ordinary writings. To a greater or less degree, the 
Sacred books are ordinary writings. This is but another way of acknowl- 
edging the presence of a human element. So far as this side of Scripture 
is concerned, it is just as evidently proper to apply to the Bible the usual 
principles of literary criticism as it would be to depend upon the ordinary 
text-books of anatomy and physiology if we were studying the physical 
organization of the prophets. There is another and vastly more im- 
portant side — the Divine element in Scripture. So far as this other side 
is concerned, a simple ploughman may be better able to understand the 
Sacred writers than the keenest critic. Just as the simple ploughman 
may know more about the constellations in the heavens than a far abler 
man who has spent all his time peering into the tube of his microscope. 
The acquisition of spiritual truth is dependent upon spiritual discernment. 
But of this, many of the critics are deeply sensible. 

2. Because it was not intended to teach science, but re- 
ligion. 3. There is none. 4. \a) By Jewish tradition; 
(?) by studying facts presented in books themselves. 5. 
Loyalty to tradition is loyal ty to a theory ; loyalty to 
truth, loyalty to God. 6. {a) Our Lord is supposed to 
sanction Mosaic authorship of Pentateuch, {b) There is 
no reason to suppose He intended to decide question of 
authorship. By others, it is considered that our Lord in 
taking upon Him our human nature took upon Him its 



General Questions. 69 

limitations (LOT xviii. Vide supra, (2) {&), p. 64). 7. 
Many devout Christian scholars have (in main) aban- 
doned old views for the new. 8. " Divine Librae " (Cf. 
LOT xv. f. ) 9. (a) Speaking of extreme men as if fair 
representatives of modern scholars, (b) That it indi- 
cates very great ignorance or very great disingenuous- 
ness. 10. Most assuredly ; but one may be on guard 
against error yet not object to acceptance of truth. II. 
By refusing to believe anything but what we like to be- 
lieve. 12. These men free from traditional notions and 
indifferent to good opinion of religious community. 13. 
Not more so than that bad men using their eyes should 
see what good men fail to see who think it a duty no t to 
use theirs. 14. Does not. Nothing is true because 
believed, nor false because disbelieved. For example, 
long-continued universal Atheism would not prove non- 
existence of God. 15. Does not show beliefs of past to 
be all true, and growing beliefs of present, untrue. 
Promise was to be with Church always, not merely for 
certain centuries. 16. It has pleased God to reveal 
truths even of great moment very gradually. 1 7. Not 
as to fact, but as to form of revelation (LOT xv). 18. 
We are not competent to judge what kind of Bible would 
best serve God's purpose. 

Yet " for centuries we have settled in our own minds, and (one might 
almost say) have dictated to the Almighty, what kind of a Bible He must 
have given us, what kind of a Christ He must have sent us, instead of care- 
fully and patiently investigating the actual characteristics of the inspired 
writings which have come down to us, and of the incarnate Son whom 
they make known to us. We are wandering into a region in which human 
logic is no safe guide, when we say that the Bible is the word of God, 
and therefore cannot have this or that mark of imperfection." Plummer 
in E (4) iv. 12. 

See on Interpretation of O.T., BW v. 88 ff.; Uniqueness of O . T. Hist., 
81 ff.; Chronol. of O.T. Liter, v. 290 ff.; O. T. & N.T., 401 ff.; What 
Higher Crit. is not, vi. 22 ff, 189 ff, 35 t ff ; Proper Attitude towards 
B.C., 81 ff.; Functions of H.C., 224 f.; Christ & the O.7., vii. 296 f., 
307 f . 



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